The activity or process of creating music, and the product of such activity. The term belongs to a large class of English nouns derived from the participial stems of Latin verbs (here composit-, from componere: ‘put together’) followed by the suffix -io/-ionem. Etymologically, the primary senses of ‘composition’ are ‘the condition of being composed’ and ‘the action of composing’. Since the 16th century the English word and its cognates in other languages have been applied to pieces of music that remain recognizable in different performances as well as to the action of making new pieces. Both the creation and the Interpretation of compositions in this restrictive sense are commonly distinguished from Improvisation, in which decisive aspects of composition occur during performance. The distinction hinges on what performers are expected to do in various situations and on how they prepare themselves to meet such expectations.
Many societies place great value on songs, instrumental pieces, dances or ceremonies that have been received as gifts or acquired by inheritance, study, theft or purchase. Notions of the proper uses of existing compositions range from insistence on accurate reproduction to demands for continual reinterpretation and revision. Stories about the acquisition of songs, dances and ceremonies may or may not mention ‘composers’, persons or non-human agents to whom the invention of a Genreor the production of specific items within a Repertoryis attributed. It is likely that efforts to remember compositions and their histories have accounted for a significant proportion of human mental activity.
The fact that humans are capable of musical composition led the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss to call music ‘the supreme mystery among the human sciences’. His point is confirmed by the great number of myths that bear on musical creativity and by the veneration accorded to compositions and composers in many societies. Yet it is no less common for composition within the constraints of a genre (e.g. lament) to be numbered among the basic obligations of social life.
Performers and informed listeners generally have some conception of the provenance of a composition. It may have been newly received in a vision or acquired from an existing repertory through study (or by other means) and prepared for performance. Perhaps it is composed or recomposed during performance by an individual or by members of an ensemble; perhaps it has been newly created or revised by an individual or by members of an ensemble in advance of a specific performance. The music performed on one occasion may combine several types of composition, as when musicians improvise a prelude before presenting a newly revised version of a piece they have studied for years. Such combinations can endow a performance or a ceremony with a rich spectrum of historical references.
3. Myths of creation and transmission.
STEPHEN BLUM
Most societies recognize different genres of performance, that is, ways of acting that are appropriate under certain conditions. Performers sometimes learn to sing, dance or play instruments without learning a repertory of compositions; names of genres often carry more weight than any names assigned to songs, dances and instrumental pieces. The requirements of a genre may include advance preparation of new or old compositions, variation or recomposition of existing pieces during performance, spontaneous composition of a performance suited to the occasion or some combination of these.
The names given to genres and compositions help people to learn and remember how they ought to respond. In many cases the name of a genre also stands for a repertory of pieces sharing the same function. According to Joseph MacDonald (Compleat Theory of the Scots Highland Bagpipe, compiled c1762), ‘gatherings’ were ‘the most animating of pipe compositions, as they were originally intended to assemble the highlanders under the respective chiefs upon any emergency … Every chief had a gathering for his name’. When composition during performance is more important than the reproduction of existing compositions, a musician's repertory is apt to consist largely of conventional subjects, procedures, models and formulae (some of which may very well carry their own names; see §5 below).
Depending on the genre and its function, performers may be required to follow models that severely limit the scope of permissible variation, or they may be expected to discover new ways of treating familiar resources. The two types of demand may be seen as mutually reinforcing, or as an opposition between ‘exact’ reproduction of existing pieces and creation of wholly ‘original’ works or performances. One motivation for formulations that approach one or the other extreme is to assert one's competence or authority to evaluate either the ‘fidelity’ or the ‘originality’ of performances. Arguments concerning criteria for judging the effectiveness of performances have played an important role in the development of musical thought and music theory.
In many cultures compositions are valued, above all, as a repertory of items that can be recomposed. The creation of a new ekisoko among the Ganda people (see Uganda, §II, 2) involves the modification of an existing song by interpolating references to current events; inventing the text and tune of a song is a very different process, called okuyiiya. A successful ekisoko may assume its own place in the repertory, possibly to be recomposed in its turn. The practice presupposes the existence of listeners who are familiar with the history of specific compositions.
Obligations to praise a patron or to lament the death of a relative are two of the more common incentives for composition during performance (which is sometimes called ‘oral composition’). Evaluation of such performances may focus attention on the extent to which sequences of sounds and motions have been made to fit with one another and with pertinent aspects of the immediate situation. Detailed planning in advance of the performance is not appropriate in situations where a ‘prefabricated’ piece might be taken as a sign of the performer's lack of involvement. In circumstances where musical ensembles compete, however, they may need to compose and rehearse new pieces for the occasion (as happens with panpipe ensembles in Andean Peru). Musical notations may be designed in ways that enable musicians to perform the notated music at sight or that require a long process of interpretation (called dapu in the case of the extensive repertory for the Chinese seven-string zither qin).
In certain performance genres of the Kaluli people (Papua New Guinea), an act of spontaneous composition creates a ‘path’ (tok) so that composer and listeners can ‘simultaneously experience a progression of lands and places and a progression of deeply felt sentiments associated with them’ (Feld, 1982, p.151). Listeners who are familiar with the places named and with the techniques of performance have no way of knowing in advance just how the composer will connect and coordinate place names, melodic shapes and ways of using the voice.
The vocabularies of musicians in many parts of the world have included terms for ‘paths’, ‘roads’ or ‘ways’. Rather than creating or discovering new paths during performance, musicians may retrace paths inherited from their predecessors or revealed to them in visions. A Bard who has mastered a large repertory of resources for composition during performance might boast that ‘I am self-taught, and a god has planted in my soul every way [oimos] of song’, as Phemius tells Odysseus (Odyssey xxii.347–8; see Aoidos). The path (indlela) adopted by a Zulu singer is a melodic shape that can be adjusted to fit different words by changing some of the pitches. Among the Temiar of Malaysia, the term nɔŋ (‘path’) designates not only the songs taught to mediums by their spirit guides in dreams but also the genres of performance (e.g. nɔŋ tahun: ‘annual fruit way’).
People who repeatedly carry out a prescribed series of actions are engaged in ritual or ceremonial behaviour. Specialists who must remember and teach the proper sequences of ritual actions often have good reason to isolate and name certain components of those sequences and to distinguish multiple levels of organization (‘paths within paths’). Many rituals link together a number of performance genres and require coordination of simultaneous as well as successive actions. The purposes of a ritual may call for greater or lesser degrees of flexibility in re-enacting its constituent sequences. Participants may be obliged to create or reproduce compositions in ways appropriate to their specific roles.
Various types of composition during performance are particularly important in shamanic rituals where they may function to induce a state of trance in the shaman, support his journey to another world or convey his report of the journey or the messages of a spirit that has possessed him. It is doubtful whether shamans could operate effectively by restricting themselves to the reproduction of existing songs and dances, important though these may be in a shaman's repertory.
Rituals that call upon deities or spirits to respond appropriately may well include compositions that can be recognized by all concerned. When pieces (nziyo, sing. rwiyo) for the Shona lamellophone mbira dza vadzimu are played during possession rituals in order to attract the spirits of ancestors (see Zimbabwe), it is appropriate for players to select whatever piece a particular spirit is known to prefer. The norms of mbira performance require a high level of improvised variation, which the spirits and other participants would both expect and appreciate. The repertory of pieces is, in effect, a repertory of models or frameworks for improvisation, with no requirement that pieces be played in a conventional order.
In contrast, the ordering of songs and drumming patterns associated with the deities in the Brazilian candomblé religion and other African-derived religions of Latin America and the Caribbean follows the requirements of a liturgy. In the first part of the public ceremonies known as orô in Bahia, the gods are greeted and called in a fixed order as the leader selects songs associated with each god in turn, with the aim of bringing some of that god's initiates into a state of possession (see Latin America, §III). Leaders who control large repertories and are familiar with initiates' preferences are best able to judge which songs may prove most effective at different points in the ceremony; the initiates of each god will have accumulated rich funds of experience linked to certain items in that god's repertory.
The demands of ritual and ceremony have long furnished compelling incentives to organize, rearrange, enlarge or abridge repertories. Such actions are often attributed to legendary sages or to saints (e.g. the pope Gregory I, said in the prologue of the 9th-century cantatorium of Monza to have ‘composed this book of musical art’). The Analects of Confucius mention a ‘reform’ in which ‘the pieces in the Royal songs (ya) and Praise songs (song) all found their proper places’ (ix.14, trans. Legge). Criteria for determining the ‘proper places’ are not always immune to pressures for change.
When songs and ceremonies are performed according to a ritual calendar, it may be necessary to create new compositions at certain times of year. In San Juan Pueblo, a Tewa-speaking community of New Mexico, new songs are composed each year for the Turtle Dance (okushare), held after the winter solstice, and for the Gourd Dance (pogonshare) or Basket Dance (tunshare), one of which is performed before the installation of the summer chief. The composers, appointed on the basis of their musical talent, may elect to recycle portions of earlier songs, perhaps altering words or melody. Whatever is borrowed must remain in its original position within the conventional form of five parts in the sequence AABBA.
The various respects in which ritual practices emphasize composition during performance or reproduction of compositions provide valuable evidence of the social relationships that the rituals are designed to maintain among humans, spirits and divinities. Without the composition and performance of ceremonies, humans would never have learnt to live in communities or to create larger political entities.
The importance of composition makes it an appropriate (though not an inevitable) subject of myth and of discourse and writing that draw on the resources of myth. Myths may focus on the acquisition of songs, dances, ceremonies or musical instruments without identifying composers or inventors. In learning to perform sequences of songs and ceremonies, it is not always necessary to learn how, when and by whom they were created. Myths may treat compositions simply as ‘texts’ with specific uses, or they may account for the creation as well as the uses of the texts.
A powerful rationale for reproducing an existing series of compositions is provided by beliefs that the series preserves the ‘flavour’ or ‘scent’ of an ancestor. In the Pitjantjara language of southern Australia mayu has the dual meaning of ‘sound’ and ‘flavour’, and inma mayu is a melodic contour associated with an ancestor who created a series of songs for the benefit of his descendants (see Australia, §II, 4). In the Aranda language the verb tneuma or tnauuma, derived from the root etna (‘name’, ‘verse’), refers exclusively to the composition of sacred verses by totemic ancestors (Strehlow, 1971, p.126). Upon emerging from the earth, each ancestor called out his own name, then named specific features of the surrounding landscape, animals and humans as they were created. Having gained the power to control all he had named, the ancestor provided his descendants with access to this power by teaching them to sing his ‘cycle’ of sacred verses. The ordering of songs in the cycle follows the ancestor's itinerary; hence different portions of a large cycle may be owned by members of different social groups. Those who learn to perform the songs and associated ceremonial actions correctly draw upon the energies deposited by ancestors at particular sites. Secrecy is indispensable if the compositions and the art of performance are to be preserved; accurate knowledge of songs and ceremonies is not easily acquired. Singers may first learn a ‘false front’ (inma nguntji: ‘untruthful song’) before coming to understand the ‘true song’ (inma mulapa).
The manner in which processes of creation and transmission are represented in a people's myths and cosmologies directs attention toward the attitudes and disciplines that are most appropriate in each case. The Navajo ceremonial practitioner Frank Mitchell (1881–1967) compared the reproduction of songs, ceremonies and stories with the agricultural cycle, from seeds through mature plants to new seeds. Since ‘the first thing the Holy People did was to make a song and a prayer for the plants on the earth so the earth would be fruitful’, these were also the first song and prayer that he learnt.
Compositions are recognized as discrete items when they can be exchanged for other goods. In the Blackfoot Indian myth of the origin of the beaver medicine bundle, the first human owner of the bundle receives a series of songs from beaver in return for prepared animal skins, without making any particular effort to remember the songs. Although subsequent owners are not likely to have learnt the same powerful songs, the medicine songs used in the beaver cult would once have been received from animals or other figures in visions, like all other powerful songs. Regularities in formal structure must have contributed to the relative ease with which Blackfoot songs were learnt in visions (as Nettl has argued). In giving songs to one another, Blackfoot singers perform them as complete units, just as donors are said to have done in visions. The fact that, in visions of the Salish or ‘Flathead’ Indians, donors almost always repeat a song several times as they move towards the receiver has been interpreted as ‘a symbolic reflection of the actual process of composition’, though it might also be understood as evidence of ‘recalling’ or ‘recomposing’ songs (Merriam, 1964). In the terminology of the Oglala Sioux, ‘giving birth to a song’ involves two types of transmission: secular songs are ‘made’ and ‘caught’, but religious songs must be ‘taught’ and ‘learnt’ in visions.
With respect to the products and processes of composition, divinities and spirits may be represented as ideal auditors, donors, sources of knowledge and power, or (less frequently) active composer-performers. In some cosmologies gods find uses for compositions that resemble those of humans. The Quiché Maya Popol vuh (‘Council book’) tells how the tune Hunahpu Monkey received its name when the heroic gods Hunahpu and Xbalanque played it in order to call their stepbrothers (later the patron deities of arts and crafts) to dance before their grandmother.
Poet-musicians have portrayed gods as both creators and recipients of instruments and compositional models. In the fourth Homeric Hymn, Hermes gives the lyre he has just invented to Apollo, informing him that the instrument ‘teaches through its sound all manner of things that delight the mind’ so long as the player ‘enquires of it cunningly’ (ll.483–5). Pindar's twelfth Pythian Ode (490 bce) attributes to Athena the art exercised by aulos players in competitions: imitating the wailing of the Gorgon Euryala, she made a ‘melody of all voices’ for auloi and named it ‘the nome with many heads’. Both passages suggest that successful performance requires highly interactive relationships between musician and instrument, musician and model. Likewise, the singer of the sixth Homeric Hymn, hoping to gain victory in a competition, asks Aphrodite merely to ‘prepare my song’, which still leaves much of the work to him.
The uses of myths and legends about relationships of composers to suprahuman sources of energy and inspiration have not been extensively investigated by scholars. In some cultures, stories of the composer's vocation follow a conventional format, with each new instance replicating the basic myth. The aşık of Turkey and Azerbaijan may receive his vocation when an Alevi religious leader and a beautiful woman appear to him in a dream, after which he finds himself able to play the long-necked lute and to create new verses and melodies (see Turkey). The aşık receives his subject matter (mystical love) and his motivation before acquiring his technique; in other vocation narratives motivation and technique come before subject matter. Caedmon, the 8th-century poet-singer mentioned in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People (iv.24), ‘received the gift of singing freely by the aid of God’ in a dream but needed to learn from his fellow monks the stories and doctrines he could now convey by means of song.
Vocation narratives serve to perpetuate conceptions of gender roles. Stories of men who are inspired to create songs by love for a woman they have glimpsed in a vision or a picture are far more widespread than any such stories about women poet-singers. The vidas of the Provençal troubadours are a rich source of examples (see Troubadours, trouvères, §I, 2). In modern Europe the misconception that women were incapable of musical composition was perpetuated, in part, through the standard plot-lines of composer biographies.
Attributes of compositions are among the most common topics of discourse about music. ‘Composition’ is an appropriate term when specific parts or elements of songs or instrumental pieces can be enumerated, yet the extent to which musicians speak of ‘joining together’ or ‘coordinating’ several components is a cultural variable. Words for such actions as ‘making’, ‘forming’, ‘finding’ and ‘receiving’ may or may not imply an interest in the construction of the music that is ‘made’, ‘formed’, ‘found’ or ‘received’.
In the language of the ’Aré'aré of Malaita Island, the term supaaha designates a composition that has two, three or four melodic segments (ro'u mani 'au or toku mani 'au: ‘joints of a piece’). Different ways of connecting sounds (noroana) and intervals (aahoa) within the segments are identified when musicians tell stories about composers who chose to imitate sounds, intervals or rhythms produced by birds, frogs, humans or other sources of sound.
Technical terms in many languages name the components or factors that must be coordinated in acts of composition, whether simultaneously or in succession, by a group of collaborators or by a single composer. In the Pacific island kingdom of Tonga, a new composition may have three composers (pulotu or fa'u, depending on the genre), who are responsible in turn for the poetry (ta'anga), its melodic and rhythmic setting (hiva) and the arm movements that interpret the poetry (haka); a composer who can create all three components deserves to be called punake rather than pulotu or fa'u.
Many practices of singing and recitation are based on pre-composed verbal texts that are memorized and performed according to conventional procedures. Vedic recitation (see India, §I, 3(i)) is the classic example of this conception. A few of the 1028 hymns of the Rg-veda (e.g. 1.130.6, 5.2.11, 5.29.15) compare the composition of verse to the construction of a well-built wagon. It is the poet's responsibility to pronounce ‘crafted formulae’ (tastān mántrān) that are also ‘true’ (satyá). Such language underlines the importance of maintaining the integrity of the pre-composed text in every performance. Conceptions of the appropriate musical procedures for presenting fixed texts vary greatly among the world's religions, as does the technical terminology applied to the texts and to their modes of presentation. Performers who reproduce religious texts may in some instances believe that words and melody were created as a single entity.
Sung poetry is an effective medium in which to describe an act of composition or its outcome. Two eulogies in the ancient Chinese Shi Jing: (‘Book of odes’) identify the composer of poem and tune as well as the person to whom the composition was offered: ‘Ki-fu has made [zuo] the eulogy [song]; its verse [shi] is very great, its air [feng] is extensive and fine; it is presented to the prince of Shen’ (trans. Karlgren; nos.259–60 in the text of the Mao school). Whether Ki-fu created an ‘extensive’ air to fit his poem or adapted an existing tune, the process of ‘making the eulogy’ required coordination of verse and air. The ancient Greek lyric poet Alcman (fl c630 bce) boasts of having ‘devised words and melody by organizing the tongued cry of partridges’ (frag.39). In the initial strophe and antistrophe of his third Olympian Ode (476 bce), Pindar speaks of ‘blending’ the melodies of phorminx and aulos with the setting [thesis] of the verses and of ‘discovering a bright and new fashion [tropos]’ by ‘fitting together’ a specific metre and tone-system.
Accounts of individual acts of composition may suggest an implicit theory of music, but explicit theories consist of generalizations, supported more often than not with references to examples. The terms in which theorists treat compositional issues are shared to varying degrees with other areas of speculative activity (e.g. cosmology, mathematics, linguistics) and other practices (e.g. architecture, oratory, painting). Implications for musical thought lie close to the surface in such metaphysical statements as the Jewish and Christian doctrine that God ‘ordered all things by measure and number and weight’ (Wisdom of Solomon, xi.21). For many centuries, and in a number of civilizations, an understanding of the universe as composed of harmonious ratios and proportions provided composers of music with powerful incentives and constraints.
If there is one compositional issue that has generated more discussion than any other, it is how to coordinate poetry, song, dance and instrumental parts. Given the difficulty of reconciling the claims of these four components, normative statements about the proper relationship between any two of them are common, with varying degrees of emphasis on priority (as in ‘Prima la musica, poi le parole’) or on interdependence. According to Plutarch (Symposiakon, 747c–748b), dancing and sung poetry ‘are fully associated and the one involves the other’, most notably in the genre hyporchēma; such statements need not imply that the two components have equal weight.
Theories of music invariably treat more than one level of temporal organization. The section on music in the famous Nātya-śāstra attributed to the sage Bharata (see India, §I) opens with statements about coordinating song (gāna), instrumental music (vādya) and acting (nātya) into a unity and combining notes (svara), time-cycles (tāla) and words (pada) to produce gāndharva (the art named after the celestial gandharvas, as Greek mousikē was named after the Muses). Whatever its point of departure, any theory specifies a number of components of larger entities and recognizes constraints on possible combinations. Mental capacities deemed indispensable to composition and performance may be explicitly acknowledged or simply taken for granted by theorists. According to Dattila, whose treatise overlaps in content with the Nātya-śāstra, gandharva is ‘a group of notes well measured through rhythmic beats [tāla] and set to words [padasthah] when rendered with [due] intentness [avadhāna]’ (trans. Lath). As one of the conditions of compositional activity, ‘intentness’ is comparable to ‘intuition’ or ‘understanding’ (synesis) in the theory of Aristoxenus (2nd half of 4th century bce). Both terms denote a capacity that enables musicians to coordinate several factors.
Aristoxenus devised a set of terms with which to analyse speech (lexis), melody (melos) and bodily movement (kinesis), progressing in each case from points (letters, notes, cues) to conjunctures (syllables, intervals, figures) and groups (words, systems). His Harmonic Elements and Elements of Rhythm enumerate the pertinent variables of ‘melodic composition’ (melopoiia) and ‘rhythmic composition’ (rhythmopoiia). The consequences of Aristoxenian theory for the musical cultures of Europe and the Near East are incalculable, not least in the treatment of tonal organization and rhythmics as separate branches of musical knowledge.
The chapters on melodic composition in the Kitāb al-mūsīqī al-kabīr (‘Great book on music’) of al-Fārābi(d 950) and in the Micrologus of Guido of Arezzo (d after 1033) have long been seen as fundamental contributions to the music theory of the Near East and Europe respectively. The conventional analogy between letters and notes, syllables and intervals is treated very differently in the two works. Guido, who compares the construction of verse with that of vocal melody in general, extends the analogy to poetic feet and written neumes (see Notation, §III, 1), then to lines of verse and melodic phrases. Composers of melodies should aim for ‘harmonious correspondences’ among neumes and phrases that are sufficiently differentiated; visual metaphors are appropriate to the perception of such correspondences, as in Guido's likening a melodic inversion to the reflection of a face in a well.
Al-Fārābī, comparing the composition of verses with that of the melodies to which they are sung, does not suggest that melodic segments are analogous to groups of syllables. Rather, he emphasizes determinations that limit both the number of notes or letters and their natural orderings in entities of various sorts, from which poets and composers learn to make appropriate selections. Distinctive attributes of melodic segments, according to al-Fārābī and many of his successors, include the extent to which a given segment is necessary or ornamental, and whether it enhances the salience or the subtlety of a melodic line. Once a composer has created a melody, the musicians who learn and remember it should know how to make suitable alterations, planning them in advance or introducing them at the moment of performance. Responsibility for conception and revision of melodies is divided between the sexes in a remark that al-Fārābī attributes to the great musician Ishāq al-awsili (767–850): ‘Melodies are texts created by men and improved [in some sources, ‘edited’] by women’.
The uses for which compositions are designed have considerable bearing on which components are named and which, if any, are notated. In remembering the names or reading the notations, musicians bring into play their habits of associating whatever is named or notated with other aspects of composition. Musicologists have underestimated the extent to which notations of poetry can convey information about rhythm, melody and form to musicians with the requisite training and experience. As they read a text intended for singing, performers may recall or create appropriate rhythms, melodic contours and formal divisions. Music historians unfamiliar with the original conventions of performance can sometimes make inferences about musical structure from close analysis of poetic texts, as have been shown in a ground-breaking study of the Chinese Shi Jing (Picken, 1977).
Systems of Solmization may assist musicians in remembering songs or in mastering patterns that are useful in composition during performance. Syllables can represent musical sounds symbolically (as in most solmization systems) or iconically (when such phonetic oppositions as tense/lax and interrupted/continuant are employed to imitate sounds produced on drums, bells, gongs, chordophones or aerophones). The availability of names for individual sounds and for larger units increases the degree to which controls can be exercised in teaching and in rehearsal. There is little need for names in performance genres where the interaction of ensemble members is governed more by behavioural norms than by any appeal to explicit rules or formal schemes. At the opposite extreme stands the ideal of a fully ‘regulated’ music, in which discrete elements and units are arranged according to canonical standards. Music that is ‘regulated or composed’ is normally cultivated alongside other, less restricted idioms, as Johannes de Grocheio observed with respect to Parisian musical practice in the 13th century.
In many times and places musicians have been expected to know not only a repertory of compositions but also how to compose. Musicians who learn and remember compositions may also learn how to revise them. A repertory of compositions may serve as a repertory of ‘models’, each of which calls for specific types and degrees of elaboration or recomposition during performance. Other models are abstractions derived from aural and tactile experience, with or without the assistance of speech or writing. Resources that become familiar to composers through experience may also include conventional formulae, figures, styles and scenarios as well as individual sounds and intervals. Composers often need to acquire a command of the movement patterns by which specific rhythmic and melodic figures are obtained from instruments.
Whether it is stored in a musician's memory or realized in performance, a model summarizes a set of constraints that applies to one class of compositions or performances, which is often subsumed within a larger sequence or cycle (e.g. the minuet and trio within a four-movement symphony). Any model is ‘composite’ in certain respects, and some components are likely to be marked as more amenable to variation and rearrangement. Music theorists adopt various strategies in deciding which components and procedures require names and which are best left unnamed. The history of the pedagogical uses of models forms a large part of the prehistory of musical analysis. Melodic models figure prominently in early musical notations, such as the grāma- rāga-demonstrations of the Kudumiyāmalai inscription (7th or 8th century ce) in South India and the model antiphons of medieval European tonaries (see Tonary, §3, and Neuma, §1).
The great diversity in human attitudes towards composition makes it impossible to formulate general (that is, cross-cultural) criteria for distinguishing between ‘pieces’ and highly prescriptive ‘models’. To realize a model, or to recompose an existing piece, musicians must make adjustments so that all components, whatever their provenance, will fit together in an appropriate manner. Players of the Sardinian launeddas (a triple clarinet; see Sardinia) are judged by their ability to create subtle transitions between each small melodic unit (noda, from Latin nota) in a conventional sequence (iskala). Each size of launeddas has its own name, its own tuning (cunsertu) and its own iskala, the basis of composition during performance.
Poet-singers may or may not be expected to create new models that allow for variation in performance. In Fulani praise-song (mantoore), a new model (taakiyaare) is distinguished by its title, lyrics and performance roles; the ‘song-as-presented’ (fijirde) results from variation (sanja) of the model. Different verbs are associated with each of these nouns: one ‘makes’ or ‘comes up with’ a taakiyaareand one ‘brings’ the fijirde.
Some of the simplest models are terms that denote conventional sequences of actions and help musicians to remember ways in which these actions can be performed. In the funeral songs (buñansan) of the Diola-Fogny of Senegal, soloists ‘begin’, then proceed ‘to speak’ or ‘to praise’ before ‘killing’ (i.e. terminating) the solo section, an act that cues the ensemble to ‘sing out the melody’. Another type of model isolates two or more components that must be performed simultaneously. The Banda-Linda term àk.nə (literally, ‘husband’ or ‘male’) designates a simplified version of any vocal melody or any part in an instrumental ensemble (see Central African Republic). Each àkɔ.nə is, in effect, a formula that can be played or sung in a limited number of ways as it combines with other formulae.
More complex sets of models incorporate a number of structural levels. The professional īggīw of Mauritania must master a repertory that is organized according to the overall progression of any conceivable performance and requires musicians to select beginnings, continuations and conclusions from the appropriate categories. Male players of the tidīnīt (lute) learn a sequence of four or five ‘routes’ (dhuur, sing. dhar; literally, ‘back of a dune’) which must be played in a prescribed order following either the ‘black way’ or the ‘white way’. The pieces (eŝwaar) and motifs (raddāt) associated with each ‘route’ serve as resources from which musicians compose their performances. At all levels the progression moves from the ‘blackest’ entities (connoting youth, strength, war, honour) to the ‘whitest’ (connoting maturity, refinement, love, pleasure); hence every performance invokes many of the longstanding correlations made by Arab theorists between modes and seasons, humours, moral qualities and so on (see Arab music, §I, 1–3, and Mauritania).
Learning such units as the Sardinian nodas or the Mauritanian ‘routes’ and motifs entails learning the correct, or permissible, sequences in which to perform them. The Korean instrumental genre sanjo (literally, ‘scattered melody-types’), developed in the 19th century as a large-scale framework for improvisation (chŭkhŭng ŭmak), likewise places numerous constraints on the ordering of melodic and rhythmic units (see Korea). In the late 20th century the sanjoof a specific performer on a given instrument may resemble a fixed composition more than a tightly constrained improvisation. The same observation is often applied to the ceòl mór (‘great music’, also known since the 19th century as Pibroch) of the Scottish highland bagpipe, in which variations of a theme (urlar) may once have been performed in a flexible order but are now played in a fixed sequence.
The primary function of such models as the Sardinian iskala and the Korean sanjo is to outline the basic structure of one performance. Models of this type, comprising several sections in a prescribed order, have often provided a focus for competitions, as in the cases of pibroch and of the ancient Greek nomoi. Other types of competition have favoured newly composed songs that met certain specifications (for examples, see Puy and Meistergesang, §6). In numerous instances prescribed sequences of melodic formulae and melody types have gradually taken on the attributes of fixed compositions.
Collections of models that are too extensive to be treated in full on a single occasion have been organized in a number of ways, many of which involve conceptions of mode. Some modal systems furnish a limited number of categories for classifying existing pieces according to specific features, such as octave species, Ambitus and Final; other systems are designed as collections of melody types that provide guidelines for new compositions and performances (see Mode, §I, 3, IV, 2, V, 4(i) and V, 4(ii)). A single system may be structured to serve both purposes. A set of categories is easily associated with other sets containing the same number of entities (e.g. four seasons or humours, seven planets, 12 months). Each member of a large open-ended collection of melody types needs its own ‘personality’, a bundle of features that distinguishes it from its neighbours. These may include an affinity with particular poetic metres and topics as well as a vocabulary of characteristic melodic turns and a sequence of contrasting melodic registers. Some bundles of features and options are likely to be far more extensive than others, with the consequence that they yield up more of their secrets to the most experienced musicians; this is notably the case with the great rāgas of south Indian music (e.g. śankarābharanam).
Proper names provide an efficient means with which to invoke the ‘personalities’ of modal entities and to specify appropriate sequences (as in rules of the form ‘y, if used, should follow x and precede z’). Systems that treat mode more as category than as type have less need for proper names; in such systems names are more commonly derived from locations in a general scale (e.g. the medieval European protus, deuterus etc., modelled on the Byzantine Oktōēchos).
For a troupe preparing a performance of Beijing opera, the compositional process (buju, ‘arrangement of the parts’) begins with a decision to use one or both modal systems (erhuang and xipi) and perhaps one or more secondary modes, according to the nature of the dramatic action. Next, one metrical type (banshi) is selected for each group of verses, with appropriate adjustments and with attention to the overall sequence of metrical types. The resources made available by these decisions are then employed in composing the specific melodies to be sung by each character.
Large repertories of models can be arranged so as to offer musicians a choice between four or more categories, each of which contains its own beginnings, continuations and conclusions. The Persian radīf (‘row’) is a tightly organized repertory of melody types and relatively fixed pieces which, like sanjo, exists in different versions for specific instruments (see Iran, §II). Most versions are subdivided into seven primary ‘systems’ (dastgāh) and five secondary systems (āvāz), each with its own sequence of smaller units. The radīf is at once a set of 12 categories and a collection of melody types, some of which are strongly associated with specific poetic metres. Competent performers, having studied the entire radīf over a period of several years, are capable of making effective connections between the units they choose to perform on a given occasion; in this respect the radīf may be considered a vast composition designed for pedagogical purposes.
Compositions that remain recognizable in any competent performance have also been organized into large cycles subdivided by tonal category (e.g. the six suites that make up the Tajik-Uzbek shashmaqām; see Central asia, §II, 3). To distinguish such cycles from repertories of models is not a simple matter, especially when the cycles allow for improvisation at specified points (e.g. the Arab nawba or wasla; see Arab music, §I, 6). In Iraq the term maqām designates a vocal genre with sections in a number of different modes (which are also called maqāmāt). This feature makes the five suites (fusūl, sing. fasl) of the Baghdad tradition somewhat analogous to the seven primary systems of the Persian radīf, except that a fasl is regarded as a work designed to be performed as a whole. Nonetheless, current practice is to arrange the modal components into new sequences while adhering to the traditional ordering of formal types. In contrast to the five fusūl, which are secular, cycles used in religious ceremonies have retained a prescribed sequence of modes.
In the 20th century, tendencies to treat large cycles as fixed compositions were more pronounced than inclinations to assemble older models for use in improvisation. Historically these have not been mutually exclusive answers to the question of how musical resources are understood to have been organized by earlier generations of musicians. Like the invention of a new genre, the organization of a collection of models or a repertory of pieces is a compositional achievement frequently attributed to specific individuals, as in the lists of redactors included in 13th- and 14th-century manuscripts of the Armenian sharakan (see Armenia, §II, 2). Conceptions of the ‘pre-formation’ of musical resources may change rather drastically for many reasons, such as a change in patronage when a court practice becomes the ‘national heritage’ of a modern state.
Modern European conceptions of composition, which are largely a product of the Ars Nova and Renaissance, were made possible by the development of an art and theory of Counterpoint based on the older theory and practice of Discant. The underlying idea is the creation and notation of a detailed plan for coordinating the actions of two or more performers, each of whom sings or plays one part within a polyphonic texture. One of the fundamental conditions, a notation capable of specifying the precise durational values as well as the pitches of each part, was an achievement of the 13th century. Each step in the gradual development of increasingly precise notations created new possibilities for imagining and eliciting specific responses from performers. Although early counterpoint was largely a singers' art, most contrapuntal techniques were readily transferred to instrumental ensembles, mixed ensembles of voices and instruments and instruments that allow one player to perform multiple parts. The possibility for one instrumentalist to emulate the coordinated interactions of a group counts as one of the most distinctive achievements of European musical culture. The elaboration of contrapuntal theory, the refinement of notational practices and the cultivation of specifically instrumental idioms were closely interrelated developments.
In the 14th century the act of making and notating a polyphonic ‘work’ came to be recognized as a specialized use of the procedures for adding one or more parts in counterpoint with a Tenor. By the late 15th century some of the men who produced such works were called ‘composers’. The challenge of controlling the note-relations between tenor and discant (and between this duet and any additional parts) proved conducive to experimental attitudes, sustained through a number of stages. Possible stages might have included devising and elaborating a plan, communicating it to performers, hearing their realization, making revisions and writing out performance instructions in mensural notation. Writing invites criticism and revision, whether the object is a notated composition, a repertory list or a treatise on the rules of counterpoint.
Two well-known remarks of Guillaume de Machaut display a concern with the integrity of the artefact as notated (chose faite, apparently Latinized in the 15th century as Res facta). Machaut's plea that his three-voice ballade Nes que on porroit be read from notation ‘as it is made, without adding or taking away’ anything (Voir dit, letter 10), implies that performers who introduced changes in one or more voices might damage the delicate balance achieved through the poet-composer's control of relationships among the parts. Machaut's statement that he was not accustomed to sending out ‘something I make’ (chose que ie face) before hearing it (Voir dit, letter 33) suggests that he was inclined to make further refinements after trying out one or another combination of voices.
Various implications of the distinction between singing that results in counterpoint and composition based on the rules of counterpoint were a major concern of theorists in the 15th and 16th centuries. Prosdocimus de Beldemandis specifies that the rules for note-against-note two-part counterpoint given in his Contrapunctus (1412) apply to the sung as well as the written varieties, both of which presuppose experience in singing plainchant. A logically superior distinction occurs in Tinctoris's Liber de arte contrapuncti (1477): counterpoint can be ‘made in the mind’ or ‘made in writing’. Neither term excludes instrumental performance, and the counterpoint performed on a given occasion might have been worked out and preserved by either (or both) means. Scholars have offered conflicting interpretations of the distinctions drawn by Tinctoris between a notated artefact (res facta, cantus compositus or compositio) and ‘singing upon the book’ (cantare super librum). Only the former has ‘parts’, which were notated in succession but were presumably composed with attention to the overall progression of consonances and dissonances. As defined in Tinctoris's Terminorum musicae diffinitorium (possibly written c1472–5, published 1495), a cantus compositusis ‘produced through the relation of the notes of one part to another in multiple ways’ (trans. Blackburn, 1987, p.254). According to a remark in his Proportionale musices, the ‘primary’ part, which serves as the ‘foundation of relationships’, is normally the tenor but sometimes the upper voice. Tinctoris does not seem to have assumed that counterpoint produced by singing upon the book would inevitably fall short of the standards achieved in the best written counterpoint, though other writers (e.g. Nicolò Burzio, Musices opusculum, 1487, ii.6) were convinced that ‘the counterpoint of singers’ bore little relation to ‘the rules of composition’. Theorists who attempted to formulate such rules ran the risk of underestimating the extent to which their formulations misrepresent compositional practice.
In praising the achievements of two generations of composers, Tinctoris equated the composer's dependence on models with Virgil's indebtedness to Homer. The models were ‘works’ (opera) that exemplified the most up-to-date ‘style of composing’ (componendi stilus). Access to such works was immeasurably increased as, from 1501, they were distributed in printed as well as in manuscript form (see Printing and publishing of music, §I, 2). Historical consciousness based on evaluation of notated compositions and on narratives of a gradual perfection of technique left ample room for discussion of ‘deficient’ practices, such as the unwritten counterpoint that was subject to ‘chance’ and to ‘unforeseen’ combinations of notes (see Sortisatio). Composition was often contrasted with modes of performance in which the rules of counterpoint were ignored or but loosely observed. Gaffurius (Practica musice, 1496, iii.15) advised ‘the composer of songs’ that an immobile tenor or baritone part was not an appropriate option, since only perfect consonances reached by contrary motion would delight the discriminating listener. The very name of the ‘canon’ (see Canon (i)), referring to the ‘rule’ by which singers could produce polyphony from a single notated part, emphasizes the distance separating this compositional genre from its largely unwritten predecessors (e.g. Rota and Rondellus).
We do not know how many 16th-century musicians shared Coclico's belief, which he attributed to Josquin des Prez, that experience in singing extemporaneous counterpoint provided indispensable preparation for composition (Compendium musices, 1552). Zarlino made a somewhat contrary claim: singers lacking experience in the composition of counterpoint should not attempt to improvise an additional part to a notated piece; the ‘thousand errors’ committed by unskilled singers in improvisation would become evident as soon as the added parts were notated, though trained musicians could recognize the errors by ear (Le istitutioni harmoniche, 1558, iii.64). Coclico insisted that the rules of composition permit more licences than those of improvised counterpoint. His viewpoint is consistent with the capacity of notations to expand a musician's awareness of options, not least the option of writing ‘against’ a given model or set of rules.
Demands for originality coupled with respect for models were met in a variety of ways. An extensive range of possibilities lay implicit in the idea of composing additional voices to a pre-existing melody (Cantus prius factus or Cantus firmus) and in the complementary idea of fashioning a contrapuntal work on a newly invented tenor. In the 15th and 16th centuries the possibilities were most fully explored in polyphonic settings of the Mass Ordinary as a cycle of movements and in the motet. Conceptions of the composer's field of action were profoundly modified by techniques presupposing a potential equality among all voices. From the late 15th century until the present the term Imitation has designated the transfer of an identifiable melodic unit from one voice to one or more of the other voices, as when one segment of a cantus firmus is presented by each voice in turn (see also Fuga). The term acquired a different meaning with the technique of composing a mass ‘in imitation of’ an earlier work, retaining some of its counterpoint; this is now known as Parody (i) technique. (Other ways of reworking existing compositions are considered in the articles Arrangement, Borrowing, Contrafactum, Intabulation, Transcription and Trope (i).)
An awareness of innumerable compositional possibilities is evident in the major 16th-century musical treatises, most notably in Zarlino's Le istitutioni harmoniche. Zarlino defined the ‘subject’ as that part of a composition ‘from which the composer derives the invention for making the remaining parts’, adding that the varieties of subjects are infinite in number (Istitutioni, iii.26). He also spoke of an ‘almost infinite’ number of possible cadences and of ‘many ways’ in which composers might evade a cadence (iii.53). To follow the preparation and evasion of cadences, or the changes in a subject as it passes from one voice to another, calls for mental agility on the part of performers and listeners, who may need to remember and compare passages of diverse time-lengths (e.g. extended or abbreviated versions of a subject).
Students of composition must have learnt to remember and mentally combine the separate parts that they read from choirbooks, partbooks and the notated examples in treatises (see illustration). Experience at reconstructing a polyphonic whole while reading each voice separately would have contributed to the development of the intellectual skills that are apparent in Autograph composing-manuscripts of the period around 1450–1625 (some three dozen of which are listed in Owens, 1997, pp.126–30). This evidence does not bear out Lowinsky's thesis that composers of imitative vocal polyphony began, early in the 16th century, to use a Score in which all voices are vertically aligned. Some manuscripts show composers working with two voices at a time, keeping one voice in mind as they notated or corrected a second, then proceeding to write out another duet. The order in which parts are notated on a page or on one opening of a choirbook varies considerably, as do the formats adopted in the surviving sketches, drafts and fair copies (see Sketch). Manuscripts containing different versions of one piece do not always use the same format. The only constant is the apparent absence of any need for vertical alignment of parts in notations of vocal polyphony, except when vocal works were arranged for keyboard performance. Corrections entered in partbooks indicate that composers sometimes lost count of the rhythmic unit. It is reasonable to assume that notations made by composers and students on erasable tablets (cartelle) used the same formats as the surviving sketches and drafts.
The invention or selection of a subject and the ‘distribution’ or elaboration of all the parts became major concerns of compositional theory, treated with varying degrees of reference to doctrines of rhetoric. Contrapuntal procedures were increasingly differentiated in terms of the ‘styles’ appropriate to each compositional genre; seven vocal genres and the instrumental ricercare are discussed in Pontio's Ragionamento di musica (1588), the main source of Cerone's treatment of this topic in El melopeo y maestro (1613). For example, a ‘grave’ or ‘learned’ style of counterpoint might be obligatory, optional or impossible in a given genre. A compositional interest in subtle combinations and contrasts of chordal and imitative textures is particularly evident in madrigals of the 16th century.
Heinrich Glarean may have been the first to insist that a musician who invents a new ‘theme’ (i.e. tenor) should not be considered inferior to one who adds three or more voices to a pre-existing tenor (Dodecachordon, 1547, ii.38); his point was echoed and intensified by Francisco de Salinas (De musica libri septem, 1577, vi.1). In arguing that an inborn talent (ingenium) is essential, whether one invents ‘a natural tenor’ or composes a mass, Glarean extended the semantic field of the verb componere to cover the making of Gregorian chant (and, by implication, all unaccompanied melody). He attributed the perfection of chant to the discipline shown by its composers as they ‘displayed learning joined with piety’; with this ideal in mind he urged composers of polyphonic works to refrain from immoderate exhibition of their talent (ostentatio ingenii). Yet when forced to choose, as in his encomium to Josquin, Glarean preferred talent and painstaking industry to learning and judgment, and he attributed Josquin's pre-eminence to his native disposition (indoles).
Glarean was one of several 16th-century writers who linked doctrines of composition to interpretations of music history. In comparing two applications of talent or genius for composition, he broached a topic that was richly developed over the next two centuries: the confrontation of ‘ancient’ and ‘modern’ musical poetics. To what extent was a compositional practice based on counterpoint compatible with the ancient conception of music as a ‘composite’ of harmony, rhythm and words? Competing answers to this question greatly enlarged the range of compositional options with respect to texture, many of which were justified with appeals to one or another conception of ‘genius’.
The art of polyphonic composition could be seen as essential to the cultivation of genius, as in Hermann Finck's remark on the diversitas ingeniorum: ‘every composer has a certain individual and peculiar judgment’ (Practica musica, 1556, trans. Lowinsky, 1964, p.491). Contrapuntal technique could also be seen as an ‘unnatural’ restraint on human expressive capacities, as in the critique of polyphony that was articulated by Girolamo Mei and carried forward by the members of the Florentine Camerata. The ideal of a texture in which the energies of a single melodic line would not be compromised by other lines with contrasting ranges, contours and rhythms was realized in Italian monody of the early 17th century and in opera. The polarity between bass and vocal line in monody resulted from novel applications of some basic principles of two-part counterpoint. The renewal of musical technique effected through an intense preoccupation with speech rhythms initiated a long series of such renewals, which by the early 20th century had affected almost all vernacular languages of Europe.
A talent or genius for composition was generally regarded as an exclusively male attribute. In the preface to the first of her three collections of madrigals (1568), Maddalena Casulana decried ‘the vain error of men, who so much believe themselves to be the masters of the highest gifts of the intellect, that they think those gifts cannot be shared equally by women’ (trans. Bowers, 1986, p.140). The ‘vain error’ had its foundation in the training of choirboys, who were taught singing, counterpoint and, in favourable cases, composition by their male mentors. It was amplified through the discourse that developed as polyphonic music was published and as the merits and defects of compositions were assessed. Prejudice against women composers remained strong until well into the 20th century (see Women in music).
In the preface to his Geistliche Chor-musik (1648), Schütz recommended the study of the ‘incomparable works’ (unvergleichliche Opera) composed by the ‘canonized Italian and other classical authors, old and new’. The recommendation fits well with Schütz's argument that exercises in strict counterpoint (‘without Bassum Continuum’) furnish indispensable preparation for composition in the concerted style. Both components of this pedagogical programme proved to be remarkably durable and have often been seen as complementary. Analysis of model works, pinpointing some of the main compositional decisions, originates in the German treatises on musica poetica produced between the late 16th and early 18th centuries (see Analysis). Works of ‘canonized Italian authors’ became available to German students of composition through the early 17th-century anthologies of Bodenschatz, Schadeus and Donfrid.
What Schütz called ‘the style of church music without Bassum Continuum’ was a richer, more tractable medium than the reinterpretations of 16th-century polyphony that emphasized the absence of expressive figures (see Prima pratica and Stile antico). Monteverdi's celebrated distinction treats first and second practices as appropriate means to different ends, with no suggestion that competence in the second presupposes rigorous training in the first. Neither practice remained wholly unaffected by the other. For example, in the church music that Monteverdi composed in the prima pratica, melodic lines may develop momentum as a sequential descent continues beyond the point where 16th-century norms would require a reversal of direction (ex.1). Nonetheless, the identity of a prima praticaor stile antico depends on deliberate avoidance of a host of options (such as instrumental parts that do not merely double the voices). Although the immensely influential 17th-century classification of church, chamber and theatre styles linked compositional technique to social milieu and function, none of these large categories was restricted to a single area of technique, and each allowed for reference to other milieux. The stile antico was one particularly important option for church music, narrower in scope than Schütz's ‘style without Bassum Continuum’. Stile rappresentativo, in contrast, was a comprehensive term for several styles used in monody. The term emphasizes the relationship of composer and performer to listener: a ‘representation’ succeeds only when listeners are moved.
Conceptions of a ‘timeless’ art of counterpoint were not easily reconciled with projects orientated towards representation of the affections (see Affect, theory of the). One solution was to reject the notion of timelessness and treat the stile antico or the prima pratica more as a survival than as a foundation. Another approach attempted to circumscribe the permissible extensions of the strict style (contrappunto osservato). All such extensions might fall under the heading of contrappunto commune (as in part 2 of Diruta's Il transilvano, 1609), or they might be carefully enumerated in the form of figures (see Figures, theory of musical), as in the treatises of Christoph Bernhard. Each of Bernhard's figures was ‘a certain way of employing dissonances’, and each style of counterpoint was confined to a limited number of figures: four in the stylus gravis, another 15 in the stylus luxurians communis and eight more in the stylus luxurians theatralis (for illustration, see Counterpoint, ex.20). Different lists of figures, extending beyond dissonance treatment, were drawn up by other 17th- and 18th-century writers (see Rhetoric and music, §I). As contrapuntal theory based on two-part writing was supplemented or replaced by harmonic theory in 18th-century practices, figures that Bernhard had described as irregular resolutions of dissonances were subsumed within familiar progressions of seventh chords. Figuration became an art of ornamenting the interval-progression of any voice in a composition whose harmonies were determined by the bass (see Generalbass and Continuo). The expressive meanings of figures owed as much to their rhythmic and gestural implications as to contrapuntal and harmonic considerations.
The fact that names for many figures were borrowed from manuals of rhetoric need not imply that the specific functions of musical figures resembled those of their namesakes in oratory. More important than the names assigned (which vary considerably among the sources) was the general idea that a musical work, like an oration, should be designed and presented in a manner that would elicit and shape intense responses from listeners. With respect to musical terminology, the most enduring results of the recognized affinity between orator and composer-performer were distinctions between a subject or theme and its elaboration, and sets of three or more terms for stages in the compositional process or for the successive parts of a composition (ultimately including the ‘exposition’, ‘development’ and ‘recapitulation’ of sonata form). A composer's decisions concerning stylistic levels have also been compared to those of an orator, as in the final chapter of Burmeister's Musica poetica (1606), where the basic distinction between ‘grand’ and ‘modest’ allows both for a ‘middle’ and, when justified by changes in the text, a ‘mixed’ style. Some versions of this distinction have focussed, like Burmeister's, on the frequency of dissonances, while others have placed greater weight on the social distance between ‘elevated’ and ‘popular’ styles.
The proliferation of styles in the 17th and 18th centuries extended the composer's range of options to include the possibility of frequent stylistic contrasts within a single work. Opera, in particular, offered virtually unlimited opportunities for dramatic juxtapositions of styles, such as the scene in Monteverdi's Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (1639–40) in which each of Penelope's suitors woos her in a different style. As a result, the operatic repertory of the past four centuries constitutes a comprehensive anthology of styles and techniques. The major genres of instrumental music from the late 17th century to the 20th (sonata, concerto, string quartet etc.) also challenged composers to design coherent sequences of textural and stylistic oppositions. Relatively prescribed orderings of movements in instrumental cycles yielded, over time, to increasingly intense demands and desires for originality. Despite their prominence in 17th- and 18th-century writings, analogies between music and rhetoric do not fully account for the great variety of situations and interactions represented in opera (and emulated in instrumental music).
A 17th-century opera and a published set of sacred concertos or trio sonatas are ‘works’ in rather different senses of the term, reflecting the constraints of the milieux in which they were produced. Commercial opera, as developed in Venice, depended on the collaboration of composers with librettists, singers, impresarios and stage designers. The work as presented on a given occasion remained subject to further alterations, and the system of production left ample room for collaborative works involving two or more composers (see Pasticcio). A published set of concertos or sonatas was a collection, perhaps organized by some kind of plan but not necessarily intended for performance as a cycle. Performers, listeners and students of composition might or might not come to know the collection as a whole.
The term ‘opus’ was first used for such collections as Lassus's posthumously published Magnum opus musicum (Munich, 1604) containing 516 motets. Viadana was among the first composers to assign opus numbers to several of his collections according to their order of publication (e.g. op.5, 1597; op.28, 1612: see Opus (i)). This practice came to be more common for sets of instrumental works, the most famous of which in the 17th century were Corelli's six opera. Countless performers and composers must have known each sonata or concerto in one or more of Corelli's collections, all of which went through numerous editions.
Works explicitly assembled for purposes of compositional pedagogy offered systematic guidance to various problems of contrapuntal writing. Two early examples are G.B. Vitali's Artificii musicali op.13 (1689) and Johann Theile's Musikalisches KunstBuch (1691, according to a manuscript copy of c1735–7 in the hand of J.G. Walther). The achievement that dwarfs all other efforts in this direction is the great sequence of works extending from J.S. Bach's Orgel-Büchlein (begun in 1713) through his Art of Fugue (published 1751) – taking in as well the two-part inventions and three-part sinfonias, Das wohltemperirte Clavier, the canonic variations on Vom Himmel hoch bwv769 and the Musical Offering. Bach's mastery in revealing so many effective avenues through which to address such an extensive series of compositional problems has never been equalled.
Two of the earliest musical applications of the verb durchführen (‘develop’) occur in Bach's titles for the Orgel-Büchleinand the inventions and sinfonias: the former offers ‘instruction in developing a chorale in numerous ways’ and the latter shows keyboard players ‘a clear way … not merely to catch good inventiones but to develop the same well’. Both undertakings presuppose the student's competence in realizing a thoroughbass, which was the starting-point of Bach's pedagogy. Even in the earliest stages he looked for evidence that a student was capable of inventing ‘ideas’ (Gedanken), as C.P.E. Bach told Forkel in a letter of 13 January 1775. In Forkel's biography of J.S. Bach (1802) this prerequisite to instruction in composition became ‘the capacity to think musically’. Forkel speculated that Bach himself had ‘learnt to think musically’ by modifying ‘ideas and passages’ designed for the violin to make them suitable for the keyboard; from this experience Bach had acquired the ability ‘to draw ideas from his own imagination, not from his fingers’. Forkel's point might be expanded to incorporate Bach's deep interest in instrumental adaptations of vocally conceived figures, an interest shared by many of his contemporaries.
From the 18th to the 20th centuries discussions of ‘musical thinking’ have referred to many kinds of composition and performance (including, for example, accompaniment). According to C.P.E. Bach, a teacher of accompaniment should ‘demand, as it were, an accounting of every note, by raising objections, to be dispelled [by the student] through reasons why, for instance, this or that note can function in this way, not another’ (Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen, ii, 1762, p.7). An accompanist whose every decision can be justified is well prepared for composition, in this conception. Mozart evidently felt himself capable of justifying every note in Die Entführung aus dem Serail if, as reported by Niemetschek, he responded to Joseph II's complaint of ‘terribly many notes’ by saying that his work contained ‘precisely as many notes as are necessary’. The criteria to which such statements refer are largely those of the work itself. This strong conception of a work's requirements was at once a cause and a consequence of Mozart's intense engagement with each of the styles and genres he encountered.
The creation of an autonomous art of instrumental music in the late 18th century opened an immense field for developing musical ideas within self-contained works. A musical work, in this new conception, has been fully thought out by its composer, and the end result of the composer's thinking calls for interpretation or ‘rethinking’ on the part of performers and listeners, who fail to understand the work if the composer's choices strike them as arbitrary. Each musical idea in the work is a small network of relationships that can be reconfigured in unpredictable and potentially meaningful ways as it is connected to other ideas. The work sustains multiple interpretations as performers and listeners apprehend and experience the processes of alteration and connection set up by the composer.
One aspect of this new relationship between composer and public was underlined by Theodor Körner in his essay ‘Über Charakterdarstellung in der Musik’ (1795): ‘the conceptual universe of [the composer's] public is enriched through his creation’. Ways in which to experience a work's originality remained one of the principal topics of music criticism from the late 18th century to the 20th. Reviewing the first performance of Haydn's ‘Clock’ Symphony, no.101, on one of Salomon's subscription concerts in the Hanover Square Rooms, a London critic avowed that ‘Nothing can be more original than the subject of the first movement; and having found a happy subject no man knows like Haydn how to produce incessant variety, without once departing from it’ (Morning Chronicle, 5 March, 1794). As in this instance, critics have often directed attention to general principles and to the composer’s reputation, with little or no reflection on processes specific to the work at hand (perhaps on the assumption that general principles provide sufficient guidance to listeners). The range of interpretative options available to listeners and performers became increasingly evident with repeated performances of chamber works in domestic situations and of symphonies in public concerts. Exceptionally challenging works were understood to require repeated hearings, as E.L. Gerber noted with respect to Mozart’s compositions (1790). In the late 18th century this was a rather novel demand, modelled on the repeated readings or viewings that were taken for granted by connoisseurs of literature and the visual arts. E.T.A. Hoffmann, in his famous review of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony (AMZ, xii, 1809–10), equated ‘a deep examination of the inner structure of Beethoven’s music’ with a reader’s discovery of the inner coherence of a play by Shakespeare.
The work-concept that was first articulated around 1800 with respect to instrumental music was ultimately extended to most categories of sacred and secular music, including opera and oratorio. The formation of operatic and concert repertories (see Canon (ii)) created an intricate background against which new works were composed and evaluated. The polarity between interpretation of classics and creation of original works gradually reduced the available space for recomposition as a creative endeavour, the primary exceptions being composers’ revisions or arrangements of their own works. The values attached to the work-concept in 19th-century European musical culture were most powerfully exemplified by Beethoven’s compositions and by widely diffused images of Beethoven as the archetypal creative artist.
Many of the attitudes adopted by composers, performers and listeners towards the great works of the past and towards new compositions are associated with the idea of Absolute music. Different versions of this idea have treated various factors as ‘external’ to musical experience. Moreover, claims on behalf of the autonomy of musical works have carried different implications, depending on the values assigned to ‘autonomy’ in one or another set of circumstances. The complex stratification of European musical culture in the 19th and 20th centuries ensured both that all such claims would be challenged from a number of perspectives and that arguments for musical autonomy would continue to attract supporters.
The proliferation of aesthetic controversies may have helped composers to discover and create unique identities. Tensions between aesthetic or political dichotomies and compositional problems proved fruitful in numerous instances. Liszt, in a letter to Wilhelm von Lenz (2 December 1852), distinguished between works ‘in which traditional, conventional form contains and directs [Beethoven's] thought’ and those ‘in which the thought stretches, breaks, re-creates and shapes the form and style to suit its needs and inspirations’; in Beethoven's wake the composer of genius must overcome this duality and restore ‘the notions of authority and liberty’ to their ‘original identity’. Liszt argued that the dialectic of authority and liberty holds fewer dangers in the arts than in politics, seeing the exercise of authority by artists of genius as wholly beneficial to society. This point was vigorously contested in the intense debates over ‘Wagnerism’, which began in the 1870s and continued well into the 20th century. In European musical life of the 19th and 20th centuries, works designed for public performance were strongly associated with images of the composer as a public figure. The writings and public statements of composers acquired an unprecedented importance, and much discussion of works focussed on reciprocal obligations of composers and listeners. Doctrines of tonality and musical form addressed issues involving both compositional craft and listener response.
Claims that a work, or a body of work, has effected a synthesis of disparate elements or opposing tendencies became a familiar topic of discourse on music, as did prophecies envisaging some such synthesis. In a letter to his friend V.A. Bulgakov (15 November 1856), Glinka declared himself ‘nearly convinced that it is possible to unite Western fugue [i.e. academicized counterpoint] with the requirements of our music by bonds of legitimate marriage’. Many composers who have seen themselves as outsiders vis-à-vis the West have made similar statements of their hopes and intentions, replacing the ‘Western fugue’ of Glinka's sentence with other techniques or conceptions (e.g. ‘development of musical ideas’) which they wished to assimilate for their own purposes. Some marriages have been happier than others and have withstood repeated challenges to their legitimacy. In the USA one such marriage produced jazz, a remarkably successful fusion of African and European compositional practices.
By the end of the 20th century musicians in every part of the world had engaged themselves with Western ideals and techniques of composition, often with the aim of creating original works for public performance or for distribution as recorded sound. Western techniques were also employed in making arrangements of compositions initially designed for different modes of performance. A tendency to treat compositions as fixed texts, capable of transmission by means of notation or sound recording, was strengthened by the national movements of the 19th and 20th centuries, as well as by expanding networks of commerce and communication.
Desires for compositions that would symbolize a nation's identity and aspirations have been expressed by countless participants in national movements and by culture ministries in both established and newly independent nations. Such terms as ‘folk music’, ‘traditional music’ and ‘cultural heritage’ refer, more often than not, to repertories that belong to a nation or one of its regions. The organization of a musical heritage normally involves notation of one or more repertories, portions of which are then recycled in new works and arrangements. The compositional genres adopted for nationalist projects extend from the most ambitious (e.g. opera, oratorio, ballet) to those that are fully accessible to amateur performers. Nationalist composers have dramatized vast stretches of their nation's history in works that juxtapose contrasting styles, genres or ensembles, each with its own associations; one such work is the Jaya Manggala Gita (‘Song to the Victory of Happiness and Welfare’) of Kanjeng Radèn Tumenggung Wasitodiningrat (b 1909), first performed in 1952 on the seventh anniversary of Indonesia's Proclamation of Independence (see the detailed outline in Becker, 1980, pp.39–49). The dissemination of nationalist compositions most often stops at the nation's borders; among the notable exceptions are works of Villa-Lobos and Silvestre Revueltas.
The global diffusion of Western pedagogical methods resulted in extensive use of notations in the production and distribution of compositions and arrangements. In the People's Republic of China, for example, the promulgation of 11 model operas in the decade between 1966 and 1977 presupposed an unprecedented reliance on scores; singers and instrumentalists were neither expected nor permitted to devise their own versions of prototypical tunes, as they have continued to do in other Chinese operatic genres. In no nation have novel uses of musical notations wholly supplanted older ways of gaining competence in composition and performance, and the increasing availability of notations has led many composers to assess their limitations and explore various alternatives. Compositional uses of equipment for electronic generation and processing of sounds have shed new light on older ways of controlling the complex timbres available from human voices and from so-called ‘acoustic’ instruments.
Recording technology made it possible to reproduce and distribute improvised compositions, some of which acquired the status of ‘classic’ works and were transcribed for the use of students. This practice, central to the criticism and pedagogy of jazz, is also found elsewhere; six recordings made by the blind Chinese musician Abing (1893 or 1898–1950) were notated and taught in conservatories as works given a final form by their composer, who may have intended to produce performances that others might choose to emulate rather than works that others might wish to reproduce.
Original works and arrangements acquired new uses and meanings as they began to be distributed through recording and broadcasting as well as through printing. Most works circulated through these media have carried the names of their authors, though in the case of recordings the names of composers are often overshadowed by those of performers. Claims of authorship are now supported in much of the world by copyright agreements. The production of works designed for recording or broadcasting has given rise to new forms of collaboration among musicians, sound technicians and executives of corporations (as in the case of rock music). If some compositional aims are best pursued through the mediation of computers, others require performers capable of responding to complex instructions (drawn, in some instances, from a composer's interaction with computers). The efforts of John Cage and others to invent ‘compositions that were indeterminate of their performances’ have elicited a long series of creative responses from musicians, dancers and visual artists within and beyond the West. Musicians who act on the instructions given by Stockhausen in his texts Aus den sieben Tagen of 1968 (e.g. no.11, ‘Play or sing a vibration in the rhythm of the limbs of a fellow player …’) may or may not produce music that they or others could re-create on a subsequent occasion.
In the most general terms, a ‘modern’ composer is one who must choose from an expanded range of options, encompassing not only stylistic alternatives but also the attitudes one may adopt towards existing musical resources and towards the conflicting demands of various interested parties (including those who control the networks of patronage and distribution). The availability of new options may prompt reflection on those that no longer lie close to hand. Inquiry into the potential coexistence of older and newer ways of making music has taken many forms, linking scholarly investigation of the history, theory and ethnography of music to composition and performance. Bartók in Hungary, Hajibeyov in Azerbaijan, Ephraim Amu in Ghana and José Maceda in the Philippines are but four of the many 20th-century composers whose music was profoundly affected by their involvement in research and their insight into the dilemmas posed by culture contact.
The extent to which modern composers have laid claim to creative autonomy distinguishes them from the great majority of their predecessors. While we ought not assume that musicians in ‘pre-modern’ societies never had occasion to replace one set of procedures with a radically different set, such actions became more frequent in the 20th century. Maxims enunciated in Stravinsky's Poétique musicale (1942) warn against temptations that seldom arose for pre-modern composers (e.g. ‘a mode of composition that does not assign itself limits becomes pure fantasy’). This conception treats composition as a form of research, in which alternatives to any existing set of presuppositions may be formulated and tested. A new work may explore a unique repertory of elements related by affinities and disjunctions of various kinds.
The technical resources available to Western composers were extended in numerous directions at the same time that composers working outside the West sought to adapt earlier Western procedures for their own purposes. Innovative approaches to the organization of compositional resources have been described as ‘techniques’, ‘methods’, ‘systems’, ‘musical languages’ and the like (as in Schoenberg's ‘method of composing with 12 notes’ and Messiaen's Technique de mon langage musical, 1944). Most such formulations have found at least as many detractors as admirers. In no earlier century were so many compositional doctrines committed to writing and burdened, at times, with appeals to historical ‘necessity’. Narratives of ineluctable progress became one of the most widespread types of discourse about music during the 20th century, used all too often for purposes of intimidation, yet serving as well to motivate the creation of profoundly original works. The historicism of 20th-century musical life was continually nourished by compositions that suggested novel interpretations of older music.
A general history of musical composition in the 20th century might focus on ways in which composers responded to perceptions of their responsibilities towards predecessors, contemporaries and members of future generations. Such perceptions on a composer's part did not always match those of other interested parties, and some of the greatest musical achievements of the century (e.g. the 15 string quartets of Shostakovich) were produced by composers who had learnt to resist political pressures. Accounts of a composer's formation often emphasize a strong relationship with the music of one or more predecessors: Kurtág's remark that ‘my mother tongue is Bartók, and Bartók's mother tongue was Beethoven’ is representative. Such remarks need not be interpreted as symptoms of what the American literary critic Harold Bloom termed ‘the anxiety of influence’. Assimilating a predecessor's oeuvre much as one gradually masters one's mother tongue may reveal a rich field of possibilities, with ample space for creative activities that are not constrained by a need to contend with competitors. A non-agonistic conception of musical composition seems implicit in Sofiya Gubaydulina's statement that she does not ‘construct’ her works but ‘cultivates’ them.
Throughout the 20th century musical composition retained its longstanding importance as a primary medium in which to represent and enact social relationships, ranging from the most aggressive to the most cooperative. In a time when warfare, famine and other social upheavals cut short or disrupted millions of lives, the enduring links between composition and ritual appear to have been strengthened, both through works that probe the potential meanings of existing or imagined rituals (as in Stravinsky's The Wedding, 1922, and Britten's War Requiem, 1962) and through the creation of new performance genres. One of the enduring responsibilities of musicians – to reveal unsuspected, or forgotten, links among multiple dimensions and domains of human experience – has been well served by a substantial number of 20th-century composers. Their achievements enable us to imagine, and work towards, a musical future in which all human beings are encouraged to cultivate their creative capacities.
For further discussion of 20th-century developments, see Aleatory; Atonality; Computers and music, §II; Electro-acoustic music; Expressionism; Gebrauchsmusik; Information theory; Serialism; Set; Stochastic; and Twelve-note composition and articles on individual countries and regions.
MGG2 (‘Komposition’; K.J. Sachs, P. Cahn, R. Kelterborn, H. Rösing)
C. Lévi-Strauss: Mythologiques, i: Le cru et le cuit (Paris, 1964; Eng. trans., 1969)
A.P. Merriam: The Anthropology of Music (Evanston, IL, 1964), 165–84
W. Wiora: ‘Zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte der musikalischen Grundbegriffe’, AcM, xlvi (1974), 125–52
W. Laade: Musik der Götter, Geister und Menschen: die Musik in der mythischen, fabulierenden und historischen Überlieferung der Völker Afrikas, Nordasiens, Amerikas und Ozeaniens (Baden-Baden, 1975)
J. Attali: Bruits: essai sur l'économie politique de la musique (Paris, 1977; Eng. trans., 1985)
R. Finnegan: Oral Poetry: its Nature, Significance and Social Context (Cambridge, 1977)
G. Rouget: La musique et la transe: esquisse d'une théorie générale des relations de la musique et de la possession (Paris, 1980; Eng. trans., 1985)
G. Béhague, ed.: Performance Practice: Ethnomusicological Perspectives (Westport, CT, 1984)
C.L. Boilés: ‘Universals of Musical Behaviour: a Taxonomic Approach’, World of Music, xxvi/2 (1984), 50–65
B. Nettl: The Western Impact on World Music (New York, 1985)
J.A. Sloboda: The Musical Mind: the Cognitive Psychology of Music (Oxford, 1985), 102–50
Y. Tokumaru and O. Yamaguti, eds.: The Oral and the Literate in Music (Tokyo, 1986)
B. Lortat-Jacob, ed.: L'improvisation dans les musiques de tradition orale (Paris, 1987)
F. Lerdahl: ‘Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems’, Generative Processes in Music: the Psychology of Performance, Improvisation, and Composition, ed. J.A. Sloboda (Oxford, 1988), 231–59
J. Elsner, ed.: Maqam – Raga – Zeilenmelodik: Konzeptionen und Prinzipien der Musikproduktion (Berlin, 1989)
H. Ryker, ed.: New Music in the Orient: Essays on Composition in Asia since World War II (Buren, 1991)
M. Bandur: ‘Compositio/Komposition’ (1996), HMT
M. Sorce Keller: ‘Siamo tutti compositori! Alcune riflessioni sulla distribuzione sociale del processo compositivo’, Schweizer Jb für Musikwissenschaft, new ser., xviii (1998), 259–311
T.G.H. Strehlow: Songs of Central Australia (Sydney, 1971)
M. McLean and M. Orbell: Traditional Songs of the Maori (Auckland, 1975, 2/1979)
R. Moyle: Songs of the Pintupi: Musical Life in a Central Australian Society (Canberra, 1979)
H. Zemp: ‘Aspects of ’Aré'aré Musical Theory’, EthM, xxiii (1979), 5–48
S. Feld: Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression (Philadelphia, 1982, 2/1990)
C. Ellis: Aboriginal Music, Education for Living (St Lucia, Queensland, 1985)
M. Clunies Ross, T. Donaldson and S. Wild, eds.: Songs of Aboriginal Australia (Sydney, 1987)
J.M. Rossen: Songs of Bellona Island (Na Taungua o Mungiki) (Copenhagen, 1987), 85–109
R. Firth: Tikopia Songs: Poetic and Musical Art of a Polynesian People of the Solomon Islands (Cambridge, 1990)
A.L. Kaeppler: ‘The Production and Reproduction of Social and Cultural Values in the Compositions of Queen Sālote of Tonga’, Music, Gender, and Culture, ed. M. Herndon and S. Ziegler (Wilhelmshaven, 1990), 191–219
J.M. Rossen: ‘Politics and Songs: a Study in Gender on Mungiki’, ibid., 173–89
H. Zemp, ed.: Ecoute le bambou qui pleure: récits de quatre musiciens mélanésiens (’Aré’aré, Îles Salomon) (Paris, 1995)
J. Becker: Traditional Music in Modern Java: Gamelan in a Changing Society (Honolulu, 1980)
J. Becker, ed.: Karawitan: Source Readings in Javanese Gamelan and Vocal Music (Ann Arbor, 1984–8)
M. Roseman: Healing Sounds from the Malaysian Rainforest: Temiar Music and Medicine (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991)
L.E.R. Picken: ‘Twelve Ritual Melodies of the T'ang Dynasty’, Studia memoriae Belae Bartók sacra (Budapest, 1956, 3/1959), 147–73
L.E.R. Picken: ‘Chiang Kuei's Nine Songs for Yüeh’, MQ, xliii (1957), 201–19
M. Gimm: Das Yüeh-fu tsa-lu des Tuan An-chieh (Wiesbaden, 1966)
L.E.R. Picken: ‘Secular Chinese Songs of the Twelfth Century’, SM, viii (1966), 125–72
W. Adriaansz: ‘A Japanese Procrustean Bed: a Study of the Development of Danmono’, JAMS, xxiii (1970), 26–60
W. Kaufmann: Musical References in the Chinese Classics (Detroit, 1976)
L.E.R. Picken: ‘The Shapes of the Shi Jing Song-Texts and their Musical Implications’, Musica asiatica, i (1977), 85–109
Lee Hye-gu: Essays on Korean Traditional Music (Seoul, 1981)
L.E.R. Picken: ‘The Musical Implications of Chinese Song-Texts with Unequal Lines, and the Significance of Nonsense-Syllables, with Special Reference to Art-Songs of the Song Dynasty’, Musica asiatica, iii (1981), 53–77
I. Fritsch: ‘A Comparison of Tozanryu and Kinkoryu Shakuhachi Arrangements for Sankyoku Gasso Made from Identical Originals’, YTM, xv (1983), 14–30
B. Yung: ‘Model Opera as Model: from Shajiabang to Sagabong’, Popular Chinese Literature and Performing Arts in the People's Republic of China, 1949–1979, ed. B.S. McDougall (Berkeley, 1984), 144–64
A.R. Thrasher: ‘The Melodic Structure of Jiangnan Sizhu’, EthM, xxix (1985), 237–63
B. Yung: ‘Da Pu: the Recreative Process for the Music of the Seven-String Zither’, Music and Context: Essays for John M. Ward (Cambridge, MA, 1985), 370–83
A.R. Thrasher: ‘Hakka-Chaozhou Instrumental Repertoire: an Analytic Perspective on Traditional Creativity’, Asian Music, xix/2 (1988), 1–30
A.R. Thrasher: ‘Structural Continuity in Chinese Sizhu: the Baban Model’, Asian Music xx/2 (1989), 67–106
N.J. Nickson: ‘The Repertoire in Review: Conflations and Consequent Expositions’, Music from the Tang Court, v (Cambridge, 1990), 34–106
H. de Ferranti: ‘Composition and Improvisation in Satsuma Biwa’, Musica asiatica, vi (1991), 102–27
E. Wichmann: Listening to Theatre: the Aural Dimension of Beijing Opera (Honolulu, 1991), 131–75
Zhang Que: Akkulturationsphänomene in der gegenwärtigen Musikkultur Chinas (Hamburg and Eisenach, 1992)
J. Stock: Musical Creativity in Twentieth-Century China: Abing, his Music and its Changing Meanings (London, 1996)
M. Ghosh, ed. and trans.: Bharata: Natyasastra, ii (Calcutta, 1961)
E. te Nijenhuis: Indian Music: History and Structure (Leiden, 1974), 80–121
E. te Nijenhuis: A History of Indian Literature, vi: Musicological Literature (Wiesbaden, 1977)
M. Lath: A Study of Dattilam, a Treatise on the Sacred Music of Ancient India (New Delhi,1978)
A.R. Catlin: Variability and Change in Three Karnataka Kriti-s: a Study of South Indian Classical Music (diss., Brown U., 1980)
R. Widdess: The Rāgas of Early Indian Music: Modes, Melodies and Musical Notations from the Gupta Period to c.1250 (Oxford, 1995)
A. Shiloah: ‘Le poète-musicien et la création poético-musicale au Moyen-Orient’, YIFMC, vi (1974), 52–63
K. Reinhard: ‘Das Na't des Itrî und seine Versionen’, Jb für musikalische Volks- und Völkerkunde, xi (1984), 9–30
A. Sieglin: Instrumentalkompositionen der türkischen Kunstmusik in ihrer Beziehung zum Makam, Peşrev und Saz semai in den Makamen Rast, Uşşak and Hiçaz (Hamburg, 1984)
L.I. al-Faruqi: ‘The Suite in Islamic History and Culture’, World of Music, xxvii/3 (1985), 46–65
A. Jung: Quellen der traditionellen Kunstmusik der Usbeken und Tadshiken Mittelasiens (Hamburg, 1989)
E. Neubauer: ‘Zur Bedeutung der Begriffe Komponist und Komposition in der Musikgeschichte der islamischen Welt’, Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften, xi (1997), 307–63
K.P. Wachsmann: ‘The Earliest Sources of Folk Music in Africa’, SM, vii (1965), 181–6
J.D. Sapir: ‘Diola-Fogny Funeral Songs and the Native Critic’, African Language Review, viii (1969), 176–91
P. Berliner: The Soul of Mbira: Music and Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe (Berkeley, 1978)
C. Keil: Tiv Song: the Sociology of Art in a Classless Society (Chicago, 1979), 97–157
V.K. Agawu: ‘The Impact of Language on Musical Composition in Ghana: an Introduction to the Musical Style of Ephraim Amu’, EthM, xxviii (1984), 37–73
S. Arom: Polyphonies et polyrythmies d'Afrique centrale (Paris, 1985; Eng. trans., 1991)
V. Erlmann: ‘Model, Variation and Performance: Ful'be Praise-Song in Northern Cameroon’, YTM, xvii (1985), 88–112
V. Dehoux: Chants à penser gbaya (Paris, 1986)
F. Katamba and P. Cooke: ‘Ssematimba ne Kikwabanga: the Music and Poetry of a Ganda Historical Song’, World of Music, xxix/2 (1987), 49–66
G. Kubik: ‘Theorie, Aufführungspraxis und Kompositionstechniken der Hofmusik von Buganda: ein Leitfaden zur Komposition in einer ostafrikanische Musikkultur’, Für Györgi Ligeti, ed. C. Floros (Laaber, 1991), 23–162
M. Nzewi: Musical Practice and Creativity: an African Traditional Perspective (Bayreuth, 1991), 101–37
G. Rouget: Un roi africain et sa musique de cour (Paris, 1996)
A.A. Mensah: ‘Compositional Practices in African Music’, The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, i: Africa, ed. R.M. Stone (New York, 1998), 208–31
F.R. Levin: ‘Synesis in Aristoxenian Theory’, Transactions of the American Philological Association, ciii (1972), 211–34
D.A. Campbell, ed. and trans.: Greek Lyric (London, 1982–93)
A. Barker: Greek Musical Writings (Cambridge, 1984–9)
B. Gentili: Poesia e pubblico nella Grecia antica: da Omero al V secolo (Rome and Bari, 1985; Eng. trans., 1988)
J. Herington: Poetry into Drama: Early Tragedy and the Greek Poetic Tradition (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985)
M.L. West: Ancient Greek Music (Oxford, 1992)
P. Wagner: Einführung in die gregorianischen Melodien, iii: Gregorianische Formenlehre (Leipzig,1921)
P. Ferretti: Estetica gregoriana, ossia Trattato delle forme musicali del canto gregoriano, i (Rome,1934)
L. Treitler: ‘Homer and Gregory: the Transmission of Epic Poetry and Plainchant’, MQ, lx (1974), 333–72
L. Treitler: ‘“Centonate” Chant: Übles Flickwerk or E pluribus unus?’, JAMS, xxviii (1975), 1–23
H. Husmann: ‘Madraše und Seblata – Repertoireuntersuchungen zu den Hymnen Ephraems des Syrers’, AcM, xlviii (1976), 113–50
A.W. Robertson: ‘Benedicamus Domino: the Unwritten Tradition’, JAMS, xli (1988), 1–62
K. Levy: ‘On Gregorian Orality’, JAMS, xliii (1990), 185–227
J. McKinnon: ‘The Eighth-Century Frankish Roman Communion Cycle’, JAMS, xlv (1992), 179–227
J. Boutière and A.-H. Schutz: Biographies des troubadours (Paris,1950, rev. 2/1964 by J. Boutière)
T. Georgiades: Musik und Sprache: das Werden der abendländischen Musik dargestellt an der Vertonung der Messe (Berlin, Göttingen and Heidelberg, 1954, 2/1974; Eng. trans., 1982)
E.T. Ferand: ‘Zum Begriff der “Compositio” im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert’, IMSCR VII: Cologne 1958, 104–7
R. Crocker: ‘Discant, Counterpoint, and Harmony’, JAMS, xv (1962), 1–21
H. Pohlmann: Die Frühgeschichte des musikalischen Urheberrechts (ca.1400–1800) (Kassel, 1962)
W. Wiora: ‘Musica poetica und musikalisches Kunstwerk’, Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Regensburg, 1962), 579–89
E.E. Lowinsky: ‘Musical Genius: Evolution and Origins of a Concept’, MQ, l (1964), 321–40, 476–95; repr. in Music in the Culture of the Renaissance and Other Essays (Chicago, 1989), i, 40–66
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Musica poetica und musikalische Poesie’, AMw, xxiii (1966), 110–24
A. Weis Bentzon: The Launeddas, a Sardinian Folk Music Instrument (Copenhagen, 1969)
E.T. Cone: The Composer's Voice (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1974)
H.-H. Eggebrecht: ‘Musikalisches Denken’, AMw, xxxii (1975), 228–40; repr. in Musikalisches Denken: Aufsätze zur Theorie und Ästhetik der Musik (Wilhelmshaven, 1977), 131–51
L. Finscher: ‘Die “Entstehung des Komponisten”: zum Problem Komponisten-Individualität in der Musik des 14. Jahrhunderts’, IRMAS, vi (1975), 29–45
L. Gushee: ‘Analytical Method and Compositional Process in Some Thirteenth and Fourteenth-Century Music’, Aktuelle Fragen der musikbezogenen Mittelalterforschung: Basle 1975, 165–91
P. Cooke: ‘The Pibroch Repertory’, PRMA, cii (1975–6), 93–102
M. Bielitz: Musik und Grammatik: Studien zur mittelalterlichen Musiktheorie (Munich, 1977)
N. Temperley: The Music of the English Parish Church (Cambridge, 1979)
L. Treitler: ‘Regarding Meter and Rhythm in the Ars Antiqua’, MQ, lxv (1979), 524–58
K.-J. Sachs: ‘Die “Anleitung … auff allerhand Arth einen Choral durchzuführen”, als Paradigma der Lehre und der Satzkunst Johann Sebastian Bachs’, AMw, xxxvii (1980), 135–54
E. Apfel: Geschichte der Kompositionslehre: von den Anfängen bis gegen 1700 (Wilhelmshaven,1981; enlarged 2/1985)
H.M. Brown: ‘Emulation, Competition, and Homage: Imitation and Theories of Imitation in the Renaissance’, JAMS, xlv (1982), 1–48
M. Bent: ‘Resfacta and Cantare Super Librum’, JAMS, xxxvi (1983), 371–91
N. Pirrotta: Music and Culture in Italy from the Middle Ages to the Baroque (Cambridge, MA,1984)
C.V. Palisca: Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought (New Haven, CT, 1985), 369–433
J. Bowers: ‘The Emergence of Women Composers in Italy, 1566–1700’, Women Making Music: the Western Art Tradition, 1150–1950, ed. J. Bowers and J. Tick (Urbana, IL, 1986), 116–67
B.J. Blackburn: ‘On Compositional Process in the Fifteenth Century’, JAMS, xl (1987), 210–84
A. Mann: Theory and Practice: the Great Composer as Student and Teacher (New York, 1987)
W. Seidel: Werk und Werkbegriff in der Musikgeschichte (Darmstadt, 1987)
P. Cahn: ‘Zur Vorgeschichte des “Opus perfectum et absolutum” in der Musikauffassung um 1500’, Zeichen und Struktur in der Musik der Renaissance, ed. K. Hortschansky (Kassel, 1989), 11–26
C.V. Palisca: The Florentine Camerata: Documentary Studies and Translations (New Haven, CT, 1989)
P. Higgins: ‘Tracing the Careers of Late Medieval Composers: the Case of Philippe Basiron of Bourges’, AcM, lxii (1990), 1–28
H. Danuser, ed.: Musikalische Interpretation (Laaber, 1992)
L. Goehr: The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works (Oxford, 1992)
J. Lester: Compositional Theory in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, MA, 1992)
W. Weber: The Rise of Musical Classics in Eitheenth-Century England: a Study in Canon, Ritual and Ideology (Oxford, 1992)
R. Kramer: Distant Cycles: Schubert and the Conceiving of Song (Chicago, 1994)
R.C. Wegman: ‘From Maker to Composer: Improvisation and Musical Authorship in the Low Countries, 1450–1500’, JAMS, xlix (1996), 409–79
P. Higgins: ‘Musical “Parents” and their “Progeny”: the Discourse of Creative Patriarchy in Early Modern Europe’, Music in Renaissance Cities and Courts: a Festschrift for Lewis Lockwood, ed. J.A. Owens and A. Cummings (Warren, MI, 1997), 169–86
J.A. Owens: Composers at Work: the Craft of Musical Composition 1450–1600 (New York and Oxford, 1997)
P. Higgins: Parents and Preceptors: Authority, Lineage, and the Conception of the Composer in Early Modern Musical Culture (Oxford, forthcoming)
A.P. Britton: Theoretical Introductions in American Tune-Books to 1800 (diss., U. of Michigan, 1949)
A.P. Merriam: Ethnomusicology of the Flathead Indians (Chicago, 1967), 3–24
C.J. Frisbie and D.P. McAllester, eds.: Navajo Blessingway Singer: the Autobiography of Frank Mitchell 1881–1967 (Tucson, AZ, 1978)
M. La Vigna: ‘Okushare, Music for a Winter Ceremony: the Turtle Dance Songs of San Juan Pueblo’, Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology, iii/2 (1980), 77–99
W.K. Powers: ‘Oglala Song Terminology’, Selected Reports in Ethnomusicolgy, iii/2 (1980), 23–41
D. Tedlock, ed.: Popol Vuh: the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life (New York, 1985)
B. Nettl: Blackfoot Musical Thought: Comparative Perspectives (Kent, OH, 1989)
A. Bowen: ‘The History of Remembered Innovation: Tradition and its Role in the Relationship between Musical Works and their Performances’, JM, xi (1993), 139–73
T. Turino: Moving away from Silence: Music in the Peruvian Altiplano and the Experience of Urban Migration (Chicago, 1993)
G. Béhague: ‘Latin American Music, c. 1920–c. 1980’, The Cambridge History of Latin America, x (1995), 307–63
J.-M. Beaudet: Souffles d'Amazonie: les orchestres tule des Wayãpi (Paris, 1997)
A. Zak: The Poetics of Rock Composition: Multitrack Recording as Compositional Process (diss., CUNY, 1997)