(Ger. Österreich).
Country in Europe. This article deals with the area of the Republic of Austria, comprising the federated provinces (Länder) of Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Burgenland, Carinthia, Salzburg, Styria, Tyrol, Vienna and Vorarlberg. For the remaining successor states to the Danube monarchy, see Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania; see also Germany for the period up to 1806.
Prehistoric signal pipes, musical instruments and iconographical representations of musical activities from the Hallstatt Period (1000–500 bce) and the Roman occupation testify to the antiquity of Austrian civilization. The development of a musical culture from the beginning of the Middle Ages has essentially been determined by Austria’s geographical position in the centre of Europe, its Alpine terrain, the coming of Christianity and the settlement by Germanic tribes. External influences, especially of the races at its borders – the Latin peoples, the Slavs and the Magyars – further affected the area’s cultural evolution. Although each province has a place in Austria’s cultural history, the musical centres have always been the cities of Salzburg and Vienna.
II. Folk and Traditional music
HELLMUT FEDERHOFER/WOLFGANG SUPPAN (I, 1–5, BERNHARD GÜNTHER (I, 6), WOLFGANG SUPPAN (II)
2. Humanism and the Renaissance.
4. Pre-Classicism and Classicism.
Christianity brought plainsong to the country and a cantor moderatus is recorded in the 5th century. After the turbulent period of migration, St Rupert built the monastery of St Peter in Salzburg shortly before 700, and Bishop Virgil, a Scot who maintained contact with his homeland throughout his episcopacy, founded the cathedral in 774. Both institutions were at the centre of chant development in Salzburg when it was elevated to an archbishopric in 798 and given the task of converting the Ostmark (‘Eastern March’: Europe east of Austria and Germany). The cantus romanus, in the form prescribed by the Carolingian reforms, was disseminated from Salzburg under Archbishop Arno (785–821), a friend of Alcuin, while associations with St Gallen and Metz resulted in the introduction of the types of neumes used there. The monastery of Kremsmünster was settled in 777 from Mondsee, the oldest Benedictine house in Upper Austria (748), itself a daughter house of Monte Cassino. Numerous other monastic establishments were responsible for the knowledge and dissemination of the chant repertory from the 11th century onwards. Manuscripts using neumes from Austrian monasteries date from the 9th and 10th centuries. Those of importance to liturgical history in the Alpine region include a plenary missal of 1136 from the monastery of St Paul im Lavanttal in Carinthia (D-Sl, Cod.bibl.fol.20), copied from a Kremsmünster original, and a 12th-century gradual with Metz neumes from the monastery of Seckau in Styria (A-Gu 807), which shows the adaptation of the original Roman version to the German chant tradition. A 13th-century breviary from St Lambrecht (Gu 134) contains the oldest version of the Corpus Christi hymn Pange lingua with neumes and tonary note names. The ancient Christ ist erstanden is the outstanding example of vernacular sacred song; the earliest complete version of the text with neumes dates from 1325 (KN 1213). Paraliturgical music includes sacred dramas, such as the Klosterneuburg Easter play and the so-called Erlauer Spiele, six Christmas and Easter plays from Gmünd in Carinthia, the sixth of which shows remarkable similarities to the Donaueschingen Marienklage, as well as rhymed Offices and hymns. In addition to the fact that there was practical musical instruction, a number of music treatises of Austrian provenance indicate that musica theoretica appeared in the quadrivium in monastic, cathedral and parish schools, and eventually at the University of Vienna (founded 1365). There is, nevertheless, only one well-known medieval Austrian music theorist, Engelbert of Admont.
Minnesang was established principally at the courts of the Babenbergs in Vienna, of Archbishop Eberhard II in Salzburg and of Duke Bernhard von Sponheim in St Veit, Carinthia. Numerous Minnesinger are known by name, the most important of whom are Walther von der Vogelweide, who claimed that he learnt to sing and write poetry in Austria, and the ‘courtly village poet’ Neidhart von Reuental, who integrated indigenous and popular elements into Minnesang. Only the names and some of the poems survive of most Austrian Minnesinger, for example Ulrich von Liechtenstein. Hugo von Montfort, a late exponent of Minnesang in the Vorarlberg, wrote poems which were set to music by his court musician, Bürk Mangolt. The last important figures in secular medieval monody were the Monk of Salzburg at the court of Archbishop Pilgrim II (1365–96) and the Tyrolean knight, Oswald von Wolkenstein. Both are also responsible for a small body of mensural polyphony and thereby stand at the threshold of an independent German polyphonic style. Traces of Ars Antiqua and Ars Nova music survive in German manuscripts of the time and seem to have been a strong influence on the growth of indigenous German polyphony: Perotinus’s organum Sederunt appears in an outdated and mixed notation (Gu 756 from the Seckau monastery), motets and a conductus in Franconian notation, also three French chansons (Stiftsbibliothek, Vorau, MSS 23, 380) and the ballade Fies de moy (M 486). Several French and Italian Ars Nova compositions appear as contrafacta among the works of Oswald von Wolkenstein. The Mondsee-Wiener Liederhandschrift, also known as the Spörlsches Liederbuch, is the source for various forms of secular vernacular polyphony from about 1400 and in particular for that of the Monk of Salzburg. Only when King Friedrich III (later Emperor) summoned Netherlandish and English musicians to his court did polyphony begin to develop rapidly: the Trent Codices (I-TRmn 87–92, TRmd 93) from the South Tyrol are the most important evidence for the rapid development of polyphony in mid-15th-century Austria. The oldest polyphonic arrangement of Crist ist erstanden is by Friedrich’s cantor principalis, Johannes Brassart, a member of the Kapelle of Friedrich’s predecessor, Albrecht II (d 1439), the first of an unbroken line of Germanic Habsburg kings and emperors. The development of music in Austria is inseparably linked with this dynasty.
Polyphony reached its first peak under Emperor Maximilian I, who ordered the reorganization of the Hofkapelle at Vienna in 1498, under the direction of Georg Slatkonia. The members of the Kapelle included such distinguished composers as Isaac, Senfl and Hofhaimer, whom Maximilian retained from the Innsbruck Kapelle of his predecessor, Archduke Sigismund of the Tyrol. The German Gesellschaftslied, which these composers cultivated alongside their other works, is the earliest significant German contribution to the history of polyphony, and soon became popular outside court circles. A collection of German polyphonic songs and quodlibets was compiled in Vienna (and published in Nuremberg) in 1544 by Wolfgang Schmeltzl, schoolmaster at the Schottenstift. The work of Conradus Celtis led to Vienna becoming a centre of humanism; one of the results in music was to increase the importance of the text in polyphonic song, such as in the homophonic humanist odes performed in imitation of classical style with regard to the textual metre. The earliest example is a chorus from Celtis’s festival play Ludus Dianae (1501), performed in Linz for Maximilian I; this genre was developed by composers in the circle known as the Sodalitas Litteraria Danubiana (which included Petrus Tritonius, Benedictus Ducis, Wolfgang Grefinger, Hofhaimer and Senfl) and was diffused in the form of school songs. Netherlandish musicians became increasingly prominent when Arnold von Bruck succeeded Heinrich Finck in 1527 as Kapellmeister at the Viennese court of Ferdinand I, a grandson of Maximilian I and the first of the Austrian line of Habsburgs. Other Netherlanders who later held the post included Maessens, Vaet, Monte and Lambert de Sayve; numerous singers, teachers and organists at the imperial court, such as Buus and Luython, also came from the Netherlands.
The contemporaneous flowering of instrumental music for domestic use resulted in intabulations and lute pieces of the kind written by Hans Judenkünig, who spent his last years in Vienna. A mid-16th-century German organ tablature has survived (Landesarchiv, Klagenfurt, Sign.4/3), containing works by Senfl, Josquin, Verdelot and La Rue as well as anonymous pieces. It probably originated in one of the Carinthian monasteries which was dissolved under Joseph II’s edict; it is in a neat alphabetic notation and may be the earliest of its kind.
The Flemish influence greatly increased when the Habsburg territories were further divided among the heirs of Ferdinand I (d 1564). Thus Innsbruck and Graz again became Habsburg residences, each with its own Kapelle, and developed into cultural centres of the greatest influence and importance. Outstanding members of the Kapelle of Archduke Ferdinand of the Tyrol (d 1595) were Hollander, Regnart and Utendal, while the most distinguished musicians employed by Archduke Karl II in Graz were de Sayve and Cleve, who wrote 20 polyphonic settings of chorale tunes, including some of Protestant origins; they were published in Andre Gigler’s Gesang Postill (1569 and 1574), the earliest music volume printed in Styria. The sacred works of such composers spread beyond court circles and into the monasteries, as demonstrated by surviving choirbooks and inventories. Archduchess Magdalena’s Kapelle at the convent at Hall, Tyrol, was directed by another Netherlander, Franz Sales.
The Graz court, because of its geographical location, was the first to experience the Italian influence that gradually eclipsed that of the Netherlands. Annibale Padovano, an organist at S Marco, Venice, went to Graz in 1565 as principal instrumentalist and succeeded Cleve as Kapellmeister in 1570. On the death of Archduke Karl II in 1590 the Graz Kapelle, then directed by Gatto, was largely made up of Italians, including the organist Rovigo and the singer Zacconi. The process of Italianization continued under Karl II’s successor, Archduke Ferdinand of Styria (later emperor), who employed such well-known musicians as Bianco, Giovanni Priuli, Stivori and Giovanni Valentini (i). Ferdinand sent Alessandro Tadei, later court organist at Graz, to study under Giovanni Gabrieli; thus the only surviving Gabrieli autographs came to be in the Styrian Landesarchiv in Graz. Later Netherlandish musicians in Austria also felt the Italian influence, as shown by Monte’s madrigals, Regnart’s villanellas and the polyphonic sacred works of de Sayve, who wrote exclusively in a Venetian style. The Netherlandish musicians were usually trained as singers, whereas most of the Italians were accomplished instrumentalists. The development of polyphony was not confined to the courts, and even before the Reformation, sacred and secular music in towns was in the hands of schoolmasters and Kantors, assisted by Türmer (watchmen) and town musicians. At a celebration of Mass in 1485 at St Daniel, the oldest church in the Gail Valley (Carinthia), the best singers and instrumentalists took part. The humanist Vadian studied music in Villach, and he taught at the town’s thriving Lateinschule between 1506 and 1508. The earliest known guild of musicians in German-speaking lands was the Nicolai-Bruderschaft in Vienna, which was founded in 1288 and survived until 1782 when Joseph II disbanded all such brotherhoods. In some places the post of Spielgraf (which also appears to date from the 13th century) was created; for example, in 1464 an imperial court trumpeter, Wolfgang Wetter, held the post for Styria, Carinthia and Carniola (now part of Slovenia). Musicians and bellfounders were already established in Salzburg in the 12th and 13th centuries, and can be traced from the first half of the 15th century in the Carinthian towns of Friesach, Völkermarkt, Klagenfurt, Wolfsberg and St Veit. Noteworthy Austrian and foreign organ builders appeared from the 15th century onwards, including Heinrich Traxdorf from Mainz, who built an organ at St Peter, Salzburg, in 1444, and Hofhaimer, who was associated with Jan Behaim of Dubraw.
From the 15th and 16th centuries sacred and secular instrumental music in towns was often made the responsibility of a Türmer, a municipal appointment, while the Landschaftstrompeter and Heerpauker, who can be traced in Styria from 1527 to 1861, were typically employed by the nobility merely to swell their state; but in the late 16th century some of these musicians also performed polyphony at the Protestant abbey in Graz. The art of Meistergesang left few traces in Austria: Singschulen existed in Schwaz (Tyrol) from before 1532, in Steyr (Upper Austria) from 1542, from about 1549 in Wels (Upper Austria), where Hans Sachs had spent a short time in 1513, and from 1604 in Eferding (Upper Austria). The possible existence of Singschulen in Waidhofen an der Ybbs and Wiener Neustadt (Lower Austria), Eisenerz (Styria) and Moosburg (Carinthia) is suggested by the histories of individual Meistersinger. Music printing was introduced in Vienna in the early 16th century; music theorists were active chiefly in Vienna (e.g. Simon de Quercu, Venceslaus Philomathes and Stephan Monetarius) and in Salzburg (Johannes Stomius, an associate of Hofhaimer).
In the 16th and early 17th centuries many people became Protestants. Preachers, schoolmasters and organists arrived from countries with an older Protestant tradition, bringing with them the Lutheran chorale. Better-known Protestant composers included Brassicanus, Hitzler (an editor who transmitted the local hymn repertory and was also a prominent theorist) and Rosthius in Linz; Peuerl in Horn (Lower Austria) and Steyr (Upper Austria); Lagkhner in Loosdorf (Lower Austria); Widmann in Graz and Eisenerz (Styria); Fritzius in Kapfenberg (Styria); Johannes Herold and Posch in Klagenfurt; and Rauch in Hernals and Inzersdorf (both near Vienna). However, the most important composer born in the Tyrol, Lechner, a Protestant convert, worked chiefly in Nuremberg. The Counter-Reformation gradually brought an end to the Protestant music tradition in Austria, which began to decline as early as 1600 and died out after the Battle of the White Mountain in 1620. But the religious schism did not impair cultural development; works of Catholic composers such as Lassus were often used in Protestant services, while organists such as Perini in Graz moved freely between employment in Catholic ducal courts and Protestant churches.
When Emperor Matthias died in 1619, his Netherlandish-dominated Hofkapelle was replaced by the Italianized establishment brought from Graz by his heir Archduke Ferdinand of Inner Austria (Ferdinand II), an event which marked the beginning of a Baroque musical style in Vienna and, in spite of the Thirty Years War and the Turkish invasions, the most brilliant period of the imperial Hofkapelle. During the 17th century and the first half of the 18th, the Habsburg emperors, among whom Ferdinand III, Leopold I and Joseph I were themselves reputable composers, brought a large number of notable Italian musicians to the Viennese court: Bertali, Sances, Draghi, Ziani, Bononcini, Caldara, Conti, Porsile, Badia, Palotta and Bonno. Opera was first produced at the court in about 1630 and was firmly established there by the reign of Leopold I. It became a regular part of festive occasions such as namedays, birthdays, births and weddings in the imperial family, princely visits and coronations. A great theatrical event of the 17th century was the performance for Leopold I’s wedding in Vienna (1668) of Il pomo d’oro by Cesti, who was Kapellmeister in Innsbruck from 1652 and, after the Tyrolean Habsburg line died out, assistant Kapellmeister in Vienna from 1666. Opera became established even earlier in Salzburg, under Archbishop Marcus Sitticus (1612–18), with a performance of an Orfeo setting in 1614, followed by an Andromeda in 1616. Francesco Rasi, who had links with the Camerata in Florence, presented Archbishop Sitticus with a manuscript collection of his sacred and secular monodies in 1612. Bartolomeo Mutis, Count of Cesana, whose presence at the court of Graz can be traced from 1604, was the first Italian composer working north of the Alps to have secular monodies printed (Musiche, Venice, 1613); he moved to Vienna with Ferdinand II. G.B. Bonometti, court tenor in Graz and later in Vienna, dedicated Parnassus musicus Ferdinandaeus (Venice, 1615) to the emperor; this comprehensive anthology of motets for one to five voices with figured bass contains chiefly works by well-known contemporaries, at least nine of them from the Graz court, and it shows the impact of the early Baroque style on sacred music in Austria. Another example is the Harmonia concertans (Nuremberg, 1623) by Posch, who was active in Carinthia and Carniola and acknowledged the influence of Viadana.
Instrumental music developed rapidly during the 17th century. G.M. Radino, later organist in Padua, and his son Giulio, whose concertos were published in Venice in 1607, served the Khevenhüllers, a powerful Carinthian noble family. In 1618–19 polyphonic canzonas and sonatas by the Graz Hofkapellmeister Priuli were printed in Venice; motets by Bernardi appeared in Salzburg (1634) and sacred works by Valentini in Vienna (1621). Early variation suites were composed by Peuerl in Steyr and, a little later, by Posch. It was as instrumentalists that Austrians first replaced foreign musicians. Hofhaimer (who was born in Radstadt) was the most important 16th-century organist. Two musicians at the Graz court were outstanding cornett players: Georg Poss, Kapellmeister to Archduke Karl, Bishop of Breslau in 1618, and Giovanni Sansoni, who had connections with Schütz. In 17th-century Vienna, the outstanding keyboard composers were Froberger and Kerll, and, on a lower plane, Ebner and Poglietti. The foundations of the Viennese violin school were laid by Italians such as Buonamente and Bertali. The long succession of Italian imperial Hofkapellmeister was finally broken in 1679–80 by the appointment of J.H. Schmelzer, an Austrian violinist and composer of international reputation. It was principally as a ballet and song composer that he introduced an indigenous element into the Venetian-dominated court music. Biber, a key figure in the development of violin music, was Hofkapellmeister in Salzburg. Muffat was his organist before becoming Kapellmeister at Passau in 1690; he studied in Paris (with Lully) and in Rome (with Corelli) and his conscious fusion of the Italian, French and German musical languages typifies the so-called vermischter Stil. The rise of instrumental music encouraged instrument making. Jacob Stainer of Absam founded the Tyrolean school of violin making, and notable organ builders included the families of Egedacher in Salzburg, Schwarz in Graz, and Römer in Vienna, as well as Henke and Sonnholz in Vienna, Gabler (who died during the construction of the organ in St Gallus, Bregenz, in 1771) and Chrismann, who built the organ of St Florian that later was associated with Bruckner.
Austrian taste in church music and opera was conservative; once Italian innovations were adopted, they were retained tenaciously. The Venetian polychoral style in Austria is exemplified by Valentini’s Messa, Magnificat et Jubilate Deo (Vienna, 1621) for seven choirs, and the anonymous 53-part festival mass with continuo performed in Salzburg Cathedral, probably in 1682; it was still cultivated for its impressive effect in the time of Fux (e.g. his Missa SS Trinitatis). The church music of Johann Stadlmayr (d 1648), the best-known Innsbruck composer of the time, is also conservative. A type of oratorio, the sepolcro, was created by Viennese opera composers for worshipping the Holy Sepulchre during Holy Week. Baroque music in Austria reached its high point under the musically discerning Emperor Charles VI (1711–40), during whose reign the Turks were finally driven from Austrian territory. The Styrian composer and theorist Fux was imperial Hofkapellmeister from 1715 until his death in 1741. Fux’s sacred works, his most significant achievement, became widely known outside the court, especially in other parts of the empire. His music reflects a typical Baroque balance between older and more modern stylistic elements. The operas, oratorios and sepolcri of Fux and of his vice-Hofkapellmeister Caldara reflect for the last time the splendour of the imperial court (fig.4).
In the second half of the 17th century, the influence of the composition teaching of Christoph Bernhard (a pupil of Schütz) is evident in treatises by Poglietti, Kerll, Prinner and Samber. Andreas Hofer and Georg Muffat (whose 1699 manuscript treatise contains important elucidation of thoroughbass practice) were teachers of Samber, a Salzburg theorist who published a Manuductio ad organum and Continuatio ad manuductionem organicum (Salzburg, 1704, 1707), treatises which were succeeded by the frequently reprinted Fundamenta partiturae (Salzburg, 1719) of Samber’s pupil, Matthäus Gugl. But it was Fux who became the first Austrian music theorist to achieve a European reputation, with his textbook on strict counterpoint, Gradus ad Parnassum (Vienna, 1725). The composer M.S. Biechteler von Greiffenthal was active in Salzburg from 1706; his sacred music was conservative but his instrumental works, notably the trio sonatas, show modern, Neapolitan tendencies.
After the Counter-Reformation monastic culture revived, predominantly under the Jesuits and Benedictines, and continued to flourish until the reforms of Joseph II (reigned 1780–90) struck its death-blow. The close connections between the church and schools gave music education a broad base. The works of numerous church and monastic composers such as J.G. Zechner became widely known.
An official report made in Klagenfurt in 1742 reveals the organization of musical life in towns. For centuries the schoolmaster both directed the church choir and sang bass, and was assisted by an organist, two descant singers (boys), an alto, a tenor and the Türmer with his associates, who played the string instruments. These were the usual forces in town churches, where surviving music from Leoben (Styria), Gmünd and elsewhere indicate that polyphony was common in services. In the mid-17th century the parish musicians of Graz joined with the Türmer and town violinists to form a musicians’ guild. A charter granted by Ferdinand III in 1650 assured them a privileged position in the city’s musical life, but also imposed on them the obligation to provide music in the parish churches. Similar conditions, laid down by charters and privileges, also obtained elsewhere until the time of Joseph II.
The adoption of popular elements into art music, which were already a feature of the 16th-century German Gesellschaftslied, reached court circles, as exemplified by Prinner’s thoroughbass songs for Archduchess Maria Antonia and German vocal music by Leopold I. In instrumental works of the transition period from Baroque to Classicism composers placed increasing emphasis on easily assimilable melody. This can be seen in the works of Gottlieb Muffat (Georg’s son and a pupil of Fux), George Reutter (i), Monn and Wagenseil in Vienna; Eberlin, Adlgasser (whose best music is found in his Schuldramen and sacred works) and Leopold Mozart (who was most important as a teacher) in Salzburg; Steinbacher and Sgatberoni in Styria; and Haindl and Madlseder in the Tyrol. The divertimento and the string quartet gradually replaced the suite; the south German keyboard concerto took hold, owing much to the Italian violin concerto but independent of the north German keyboard concerto; the symphony became independent of the opera overture; and the sonata da camera ultimately led to the modern piano sonata and the genres for chamber ensemble with piano, such as the violin sonata, piano trio and piano quartet.
From the first half of the 18th century, performances outside the court theatres made opera accessible to the general public, in the Vienna Kärntnertortheater (from 1728) and by Italian itinerant troupes such as Pietro and Angelo Mingotti’s company. Opera buffa rapidly became popular: Mingotti produced Pergolesi’s La serva padrona in Graz as early as 1739. Soon after the middle of the century, Vienna saw the first example of Gluck’s operatic reforms; in this process of renewal numerous minor masters also played their part. The combination of French and Italian stylistic features with German ones created the basis of Viennese Classicism, whose greatest representatives were Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. This culture, enjoyed by the bourgeoisie as well as by the aristocracy, established Austrian musical pre-eminence.
After the deaths of Charles VI (1740) and Fux (1741), the imperial Hofkapelle forfeited its leading role in musical life. Its later directors included such estimable but historically unimportant composers as Predieri, J.G. Reutter, Gassmann (who instigated the founding of the Vienna Tonkünstler-Societät in 1772), Bonno and Salieri. The many aristocratic Kapellen, of all sizes, were more progressive, especially that of the Esterházys, associated with Haydn. Aristocratic and middle-class amateurs vied with each other in private and public concerts, spreading musical culture and encouraging music publishing, in which Austria had previously lagged behind Italy, England, the Netherlands, France and Germany. Music printing developed rapidly in Vienna from the end of the 18th century, with the establishment of the houses of Artaria, F.A. Hoffmeister, S.A. Steiner, Tobias Haslinger, Anton Diabelli, C.A. Spina and others. Through the reforms of Joseph II, astute at least in their social application, Austria was spared the fate of France at the end of the 18th century. Although Italians continued to play important roles in Austrian musical life well into the 19th century, they had already passed the height of their influence by the 1750s. Joseph II also gave new significance to the traditional military band (usually two each of oboes, bassoons and horns) by appointing such an ensemble, at a high level of proficiency and supplemented by two clarinets, as the Kaiserliche Kammer-Harmonie, to play Tafelmusik in place of the Hofkapelle band. This ‘Harmoniemusik’ ensemble became popular among the aristocracy of central Europe; Prince Schwarzenberg had such a group and Prince Liechtenstein planned to establish one in 1782. A similar group already existed at the Esterházy court in Eisenstadt. Composers who wrote or transcribed music for such ensembles were, besides Mozart and Haydn, Druschetzky, Gassmann, Joseph Fiala, Karl Kreith, Mysliveček, Rosetti, Salieri, Georg and Josef Triebensee, Johann Went and G.C. Wagenseil. The ensemble was later enlarged with flutes, trumpets, trombones and janissary instruments, and sometimes double bass or double bassoon. In mid-19th century this combination provided the basis of the new Austrian and community wind band movement. (See Band (i), §II, 2(ii), and Harmoniemusik).
The Viennese Singspiel evolved after 1760, influenced by opera buffa and opéra comique, but with its roots in popular comedy with musical interludes, such as the Teutsche Comœdie-Arien (c1750) attributed to Haydn. Mozart’s Bastien und Bastienne, possibly written for performance at Dr Johann Anton Mesmer’s house in Vienna, belongs to the new genre, which Joseph II encouraged by establishing a national Singspiel company in the Burgtheater. It opened in 1778 with Ignaz Umlauf’s Die Bergknappen (fig.7) and reached its zenith with Mozart’s Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1782). Italian opera provided strong competition and the German opera company soon closed down (which is why Mozart went back to Italian texts); but popular Singspiele by Dittersdorf, J.B. Schenk, J.B. Weigl, Haibel (Mozart’s brother-in-law), Wenzel Müller and others had numerous performances at non-court theatres and became widely known outside Vienna. The crown of the genre was Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte, first performed in Vienna in 1791, which had a profound influence on the development of German Romantic opera in the 19th century.
If German opera owed its classic form to Mozart, German oratorio was moulded by Haydn, whose The Creation (1798) and The Seasons (1801) had their first performances in Prince Schwarzenberg’s Vienna palace. Church music too owed its classic profile to Mozart and Haydn, while the latter’s brother Michael in Salzburg, Weber’s teacher, made a specially large and pervasive contribution to the 19th-century liturgical repertory throughout the empire. The musical heritage of Mozart and Haydn passed to Beethoven, who made Vienna his home. Rejecting the ties of a permanent post which his deafness would have made impossible, he composed independently, though with the support of various noble patrons, notably his talented pupil Archduke Rudolph. Beethoven embodied the ideals of the middle class, which had newly come of age. Through Beethoven, who was no longer writing to commission, absolute music underwent an extraordinary expansion of its expressive potential and its forms, and an imposing legacy was created for future generations of composers.
Beethoven’s contemporaries and near-contemporaries in Austria include such respected composers as Albrechtsberger (an eminent theorist, with whom Beethoven studied), Eberl, E.A. Förster, Gyrowetz, J.N. Hummel, Leopold Kozeluch, Wölfl, Paul and Anton Wranitzky; and Czerny (a pupil of Beethoven) attracted numerous piano pupils, the most celebrated being Liszt. Ignaz Schuppanzigh established the Viennese tradition of public quartet recitals; the most prominent violin teachers and performers were Joseph Mayseder and Joseph Bœhm (the teacher of Ernst), Joseph Joachim (born, like Liszt, in the then Hungarian Burgenland) and the elder Georg Hellmesberger. Schubert, a generation younger than Beethoven, reinforced Austria’s musical supremacy and established the importance of the lied. Like Beethoven, he wrote many of his works in Vienna or the immediate vicinity, but in 1827 ventured further afield, to Graz, where his old friend and fellow pupil of Salieri, Anselm Hüttenbrenner, the best-known Styrian composer between Fux and Hugo Wolf, came into possession of the ‘Unfinished’ Symphony. In 1865 he gave it to the Viennese Hofkapellmeister, Johann von Herbeck, for performance, and it finally became the property of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna. This association of music lovers, led by Joseph Sonnleithner, had been officially founded in 1814 in succession to the Gesellschaft Adeliger Frauen, founded in 1812, and soon became one of the foremost institutions of Viennese concert life and a model for music societies founded by both noble and middle-class amateurs in Innsbruck, Graz (1815), Radkersburg (Styria, 1820), Linz, Klagenfurt (1828), Fürstenfeld (1832) and other towns. In 1819 F.X. Gebauer and Eduard von Lannoy, a native of Brussels, founded the Viennese Concerts Spirituels, which performed mostly Beethoven. Lannoy also contributed articles on music to Ignaz Jeitteles's Ästhetisches Lexicon (Vienna, 1835–7). In Salzburg, public musical life suffered a setback as a result of extreme political instability (it changed rulers four times between 1803 and 1816, when it fell to the Habsburgs) but revived with the foundation in 1841 of the Dommusikverein und Mozarteum, through the initiative of Franz von Hilleprandt. The first Mozart festival took place in 1842, under the direction of Neukomm and with Mozart’s two sons participating, on the occasion of the unveiling of the statue by Schwanthaler. In the meantime, Vienna was consolidating its position as a musical capital. Rossini celebrated one triumph after another there, beginning with Tancredi in 1816, and Donizetti and Bellini followed soon afterwards. Paganini and Liszt were outstanding among the instrumentalists who dominated public concerts during the first half of the century. The declining standards of the opera and concerts drew sharp criticism from Schumann, who failed to establish himself in Vienna in 1838 but discovered the ‘Great’ C major Symphony in Schubert’s legacy. Orchestras normally consisted of amateurs, reinforced by professional players only on special occasions; standards rose only after the institution of the Philharmonic concerts by Nicolai and his colleagues in 1842; from 1860 they became the centre of Viennese concert life.
The Viennese waltz developed during the Biedermeier era in the hands of Joseph Lanner and Johann Strauss (i), its origins lying in the Upper Austrian ländler, the Steirer (from Styria) and the Deutscher (‘German dances’), which Mozart, Haydn and Schubert admired and composed. Culminating with the composer and conductor Johann Strauss (ii), the waltz conquered the concert halls and ballrooms of the world. An der schönen blauen Donau became the most famous Viennese waltz and Die Fledermaus (first performed in 1874) marked the high point of the dance-inspired Viennese classical operetta, a genre owing much to Wenzel Müller’s earthy and popular incidental music for the plays of Raimund and Nestroy, as well as to Offenbach’s tumultuously acclaimed operettas. Josef and Eduard Strauss were also conductors and prolific composers, who helped their brother to sweep the world with Strauss dances. Franz Suppé and Carl Millöcker did the same for operetta, with remarkable interpreters like Marie Geistinger and Alexander Girardi contributing to their success.
A widespread awareness of traditional music, previously transmitted only orally, arose during the Romantic era and led to systematic collections and catalogues. Concert performances, which adapted traditional music to the conventions of art music, were given by the ‘Alpensänger’ on successful tours abroad. Song inspired by traditional influences also became immensely popular; for example, both Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht, written in 1818 in Arnsdorf in the province of Salzburg, with words by a village priest, Josef Mohr, and music by the schoolmaster and organist F.X. Gruber, and the sentimental song in Carinthian folk style, Verlassen bin i, by Thomas Koschat, were translated into many languages. Other forms of popular music which have retained their appeal are the songs associated with the inns in the vineyards of the Viennese suburbs (Wirtshaus- and Heurigenlieder), Schrammelmusik, named after the brothers Johann and Joseph Schrammel, and military marches, evolved from bugle calls as well as from traditional songs and soldiers’ songs and mostly composed by regimental bandmasters and bandsmen, notably Philipp Fahrbach (father and son), Julius Fučik, Joseph Gungl, Karel Komzák (father and son), Franz Lehár (father and son), E.N. von Rezniček, Josef and V.H. Zavrtal and C.M. Ziehrer.
Male-voice choral singing, harking back to Michael Haydn, received considerable impetus from the 1848 Revolution. Choral societies were founded in many cities and towns around the middle of the century, including a Männergesangverein in Vienna (1843), in Salzburg (1844) and in Graz (1846), of which one of the first chorus masters was Conradin Kreutzer. A community band movement began to develop in the same period.
Austrian supremacy in instrumental music and song in the second half of the 19th century was maintained by Brahms, Bruckner and Wolf. The development of opera was determined by Wagner, who, despite critical hostility, found rapid public favour, especially in Vienna and Graz, where Tannhäuser was performed in 1854 before its Viennese première. Wagner visited Vienna ten times between 1832 and 1876. Joseph Hellmesberger (i), Hanslick and Julius Epstein introduced Brahms to musical Vienna, which became a second home for him, the heir of the Viennese Classical composers, as it had been for Beethoven. Other Austrian towns associated with Brahms include Bad Ischl, Pörtschach on the Wörther See (Carinthia) and Mürzzuschlag (Styria), where he spent summers. Bruckner lived more than half his life in Upper Austria and is the province’s outstanding composer. He was an organist and conductor in St Florian and Linz until 1868, when he became a teacher of theory and the organ at the Vienna Conservatory. Despite Wagner’s influence, the organ remained the determining factor for his conception of orchestral sound. The dispute between the supporters of Brahms and Bruckner was aggravated by the influential critic Hanslick and his championship of Brahms. Nevertheless the co-existence of diverse artistic personalities remained a characteristic of Austrian musical culture. Hugo Wolf first studied the piano at Johann Buwa’s music school in Graz, one of the most important music academies in Styria. Wolf then studied with the Styrian Robert Fuchs in Vienna, where he spent the rest of his life. There his supporters, including Bruckner’s pupil Joseph Schalk, enthusiastically promoted his songs. Noteworthy achievements in popular opera were made by Brüll and Kienzl. Graz was outstanding among the provincial cities in the second half of the 19th century; its opera, where such conductors as Carl Muck, Schalk and, in the early 20th century, Krauss, Oswald Kabasta and Böhm acquainted the public with contemporary as well as classical works, was for performers a springboard to the most famous theatres. The music theorist W.A. Rémy (1831–98), who came to Graz from Prague, taught Busoni, Reznicek, Kienzl, Weingartner and Heuberger. At the same time the Carinthian-born Friedrich von Hausegger worked in Graz as a critic and aesthetician, advocating Wagner’s ideas. In Salzburg in 1880 the Internationale Mozart-Stiftung, founded by Carl von Sterneck in 1869–70, united with the Mozarteum (which had severed its links with the Dommusikverein) to form the Internationale Stiftung Mozarteum.
In the years around 1890 the culture representative of the Austrian monarchy came face to face with an aggressive modernity. In close relation to literature, architecture and the visual arts (the Vienna Sezession movement was founded in 1897), music experienced a radical renewal, bridging the much debated gulf between Brahms on the one side and Bruckner and Wagner on the other. The first prominent figure in this progressive movement was Mahler (fig.10). The Vienna Hofoper, of which he was director from 1897 to 1907, was at the centre of the intellectual debate; Mahler's adherents included Egon Wellesz, Berg, Webern, Schoenberg, Stefan Zweig, Klimt, Freud and Guido Adler. Until the anti-modern (and anti-Semitic) change of direction in the 1920s, the Musikhistorisches Institut of Vienna University, founded by Adler in 1898, was another refuge for contemporary composers. Its graduates included Karl Weigl, Webern, Wellesz, Hans Gál and Ernst Toch. Weigl, Bruno Walter, Zemlinsky and others worked as Kapellmeister under Mahler and continued his tradition of perfectionism in performance. Zemlinsky was a major figure as both conductor and composer, and his pupils and colleagues included Weigl, Alma Schindler (who married Mahler in 1902), Korngold, Hans Krása, Viktor Ullmann and Webern. The self-taught Schoenberg, in particular, regarded Zemlinsky as the foremost authority on music and a committed campaigner on behalf of musical innovation When Schoenberg set out to dissolve traditional tonality around 1908, he was still working closely with Zemlinsky. However, although Zemlinsky kept abreast of these increasingly experimental procedures, he did not adopt them in his own compositions. Schoenberg himself became the next entral figure of modern music in Austria. His pupils in Vienna included Webern, Berg, Wellesz, Hanns Eisler, Edward Steuermann, Max Deutsch, Hans Erich Apostel and Ullmann.
Even composers who were not close to the Second Viennese School in technique or aesthetic outlook shared the sense of a new departure that it inspired. Josef Mattias Hauer had developed a 12-note system by about 1920, in parallel to Schoenberg, although the musical results were quite different. Franz Schreker, who had studied modern painting and literature as well as the early work of Schoenberg and the music of Zemlinsky and Richard Strauss, became one of the most frequently performed German-language operatic composers of the 1910s and 20s. With the advent after World War I of the Neue Sachlichkeit movement, which originated in Berlin rather than Vienna, Schreker came to be regarded as a late Romantic, although as a teacher of Ernst Krenek, Max Brand and Felix Petyrek he had paved the way for some of the most successful composers of the 1920s.
The central position of Vienna in the final years of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is perceptible in many cross-currents: for instance, Mahler had already reorganized the Budapest Opera before he was appointed to Vienna; Lehár settled in Vienna only after spending years in Budapest, Prague and Trieste; and Zemlinsky remained in touch with Vienna during his 16 years as director of the Prague German Theatre. The independent musical life of Graz, Salzburg and Innsbruck, too, was perceptibly influenced by developments in Vienna.
After the collapse of the monarchy, the musical life of the much smaller republic of Austria showed an increasingly anti-modern bias. The departure of Schreker and Schoenberg for Berlin, in 1920 and 1926 respectively, marked a wave of emigration; musicians leaving Vienna for Berlin alone included Karol Rathaus, Krenek, Max Brand (fig.11), Felix Petyrek, Toch and Eisler, as well as many composers of operetta and film music (notably Ralph Benatzky, Robert Stolz, Nico Dostal, Wilhelm Grosz and Hans J. Salter). Those who stayed in Austria, including Joseph Marx (i) and Franz Schmidt, composed mainly in a late Romantic style. Moreover, anti-Semitic, pro-Nazi sentiment was becoming increasingly evident (a Nazi poster campaign was mounted against Krenek's Jonny spielt auf in Vienna in 1928). In this fascist climate Austria offered a congenial home only to composers and performers of innocuous light music. For countless musicians the Anschluss of 1938 meant exile or internal emigration, and in some cases arrest and deportation. A cursory glance at the Austrians in Californian exile alone indicates the scale of this exodus: émigrés included Schoenberg, Eisler, Krenek, Walter, Toch, Oscar Straus, Rathaus, Stolz, Eric Zeisl, Korngold, Salter, Max Steiner, Ernest Gold and many others. With the forcible exclusion of a huge number of Jews, Catholics, patriots, socialists and communists, Austria was dominated by an ‘Aryanized’ adherence to tradition which excluded jazz, Neue Sachlichkeit, Expressionism, dodecaphony and all forms of experimentation.
The situation remained largely unchanged in the years following the war. With the revival of Austrian national awareness, music-making was dominated by the traditional Classical and Romantic repertory. The influential Österreichische Musikzeitschrift (ÖMZ) was founded in 1946, and the Vienna Staatsoper, which had been destroyed in the war, was reopened in 1955, the year of the reconstitution of Austria as an independent and democratic country. Little was done, however, to reintegrate the exiles. The post-Romantic composers (Joseph Marx (i), Egon Kornauth, Ernst Ludwig Uray, Otto Siegl) retained their influence and their high reputation, especially in Graz. Meanwhile, neo-classicism, as represented by such composers as Marcel Rubin, Alfred Uhl, Paul Angerer and, to a lesser extent, Gottfried von Einem, was widely regarded as a progressive style; the most influential models for composers up to the 1960s were Hindemith, Stravinsky and Bartók.
A smaller group of composers, notably Robert Schollum, Karl Schiske and Helmut Eder, cultivated a synthesis of tonality and the serial techniques of the Second Viennese School. But in general the implications of the Viennese School still remained as ignored as the experimentation of Neue Sachlichkeit (which was a topic among the young postwar composers, e.g. Paul Kont and Gerhard Rühm). The remaining disciples of the Second Viennese School (Hans Erich Apostel, Hanns Jelinek) came to reject the postwar serialists' interpretation of Webern, and themselves were regarded outside Austria as conservative.
International recognition among avant-garde composers was achieved first by the Hungarian exile György Ligeti, and later Friedrich Cerha, with their striking post-serial compositions, and by Roman Haubenstock-Ramati, who took his guidelines more from innovations in the visual arts than from the musical avant garde of the postwar period. Pupils of Schiske who took part in the Darmstadt summer courses (Gösta Neuwirth, Erich Urbanner, Kurt Schwertsik, Otto M. Zykan) tended to maintain a sceptical or playful distance from the avant-garde belief in progress. A pointedly detached reaction that emerged after the 1960s was a style of neo-tonality tinged with irony (Schwertsik, Zykan, H.K. Gruber). Since then, more and more composers have cultivated an anti-experimental striving for ‘comprehensibility’ and ‘naturalness’ (Iván Eröd and, later. Herbert Willi) or have sought to intermingle ‘serious’ music, ‘light’ music and jazz (Gerhard Wimberger, Werner Pirchner and, later, Franz Koglmann and others).
But the diminishing impact of specific schools on compositional techniques or styles in Austria has from the 1980s onward, again paved the way for more determined efforts of composers to be innovative. Even composers of similar aesthetic orientation G.F. Haas, Beat Furrer, Christian Ofenbauer, Wolfram Schurig, Bernhard Lang, Klaus Lang and Olga Neuwirth) have adopted highly individual standpoints. A number of composers draw on extra-musical stimuli, taken from film and video (Neuwirth), literature (Gerhard Rühm, Clemens Gadenstätter), performance art and visual art (Peter Ablinger, Nader Mashayekhi, Hermann Nitsch). In the field of performance this spirit of innovation has been reinforced by internationally renowned ensembles (Die Reihe, founded 1958; Klangforum Wien, founded 1985) and by festivals (the Musikprotokoll at the Styrian Autumn Festival, Graz, from 1968; Wien Modern, founded in 1988).
Electronic music studios were founded at institutions in Salzburg, Vienna and Graz around 1965. Since then the cultivation of electronic music in Austria has ranged from ‘acousmatics’ (Dieter Kaufmann) through computer composition (Karlheinz Essl) and media art (the ‘Kunstradio’ of Österreichischer Rundfunk) to ambient music and noise music (Christian Fennesz). In addition, jazz (the Vienna Art Orchestra), improvised music (Wolfgang Mitterer, Burkhard Stangl, Werner Dafeldecker, Radu Malfatti, Fritz Novotny) and the ‘Austro-pop’ initially modelled on American examples have developed as vivid genres. Moreover, the activities of experimental electronic pop labels (mego, Sabotage) in the 1990s are partly a reaction to oligopolistic concentrations in the mass-media industry.
See also Göttweig; Graz; Innsbruck; Klosterneuburg; Kremsmünster; Lambach; Linz; Melk; St Florian; Salzburg and Vienna.
BurneyGN
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H. Zwittkovits: Die Pflege der zivilen Blasmusik im Burgenland im Spiegel der allgemeinen historischen Entwicklung (Tutzing, 1993)
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1. Historical documents (to 1800).
2. Collection and research after 1800.
Austria, §II: Traditional music
Theological and legal writings, iconographic sources and finds of musical instruments provide indirect evidence, from the early Middle Ages onwards, of a wealth of folk music rooted in the pastoral culture of the eastern Alpine area. For instance, an account in the Nonsberger Märtyrerbericht of ce 397 gives a detailed description of the function of music and song in the execution of three Christian missionaries: the ‘tuba’, a kind of bark trumpet, summoned the community to rituals, roused warriors to battle and, like the sound of bells, was supposed to avert misfortune. The singing of the local people was harsh, raucous and appallingly shrill to the ears of a stranger; the ‘singers’ may, however, have intended to produce such an effect in order to conjure up numinous terrors. This account emphasizes the role of fear and horror in archaic religious ritual and music. The records of the Christian councils at Salzburg and Trent in following centuries refer repeatedly to licentious heathen songs, unbridled pleasure taken in the playing of lutes and pipes, and the clerical Feasts of Fools when musicians and jugglers performed. In particular the church forbade the laments for the departed, described as ‘carmina diabolica’ (devilish songs), which people used to sing over the dead by night.
Musicians played for dancing, and this was regarded as their principal employment in town and country alike. Many ecclesiastical prohibitions and sermons, condemning secular dancing as a diabolical counterpart of the dance of heaven, show that dancing was widespread and very popular, both in rituals and as entertainment. Historically, musicians practised their art in the region where they lived, for instance in the Tyrol, and in Admont and Aussee in upper Styria. A house in the town of Wels in Upper Austria has pictures of dancing dating from the 15th century, described by Richard Wolfram as the oldest depictions of folkdancing in Austria. Documentation reveals that itinerant and rural musicians played the fife and drum, the fiddle and the bagpipes.
The manuscript tradition which began in 11th-century monasteries provides many references to singing and songs. In the early 14th century, for instance, the Styrian rhyming chronicler Ottokar (from Gaal) not only mentions the ‘lotersingarae’ and ‘muotelsingarae’ who used to perform their defamatory songs at the tables of lords and retainers in Vienna, but also gives evidence of the oral transmission of the Nibelungenlied. The early 13th-century Carmina burana manuscripts (D-Mbs Clm 4660), made famous by Carl Orff, was compiled in the southern border region of the Bavarian linguistic area, possibly in the Styrian monastery of Seckau or the new foundation at Bressanone in the southern Tyrol.
The invention of printing made it possible to disseminate songs in entirely new ways after the late 15th century. The sacred songs of the Reformation were as much in the spirit of the older, oral tradition as the songs of the Counter-Reformation (Nicolaus Beuttner's Catholisch Gesang-Bůch, Graz, 1602). Adaptations of folksong for sacred purposes betray their origin when their tunes are specified in handbills and songbooks. As a record of newsworthy events, historical narratives also found their way into the folk tradition, for instance a song about Christian warfare against the Turks printed by Hans Singrener of Vienna in the Toler melodey of about 1520–30. Didactic ballads and catechistic legends are found in particular profusion at this time. Examples of the former genre are Herzog Ernst (whose tune was used in the early 16th century for the ballad of Der Ritter aus der Steiermark), Tannhäuser, Das Schloss in Österreich, and later ballads of social criticism such as Die Brombeerbrockerin, Ritter Blaubart (Halewyn), Doktor Faust and Der Graf und die Nonne. An example of the latter genre is Der Ritter und Martyrer Floriani, printed in 1705 by Heyinger in Vienna. Handbills very seldom gave musical notation; naming the tune enabled a performer to sing the text. It has been possible to reconstruct many of these tunes, however, from comparative studies of melodies and from recent traditions.
Austria, §II: Traditional music
The concept of the Volkslied (‘folksong’), formulated by Johann Gottfried Herder in the 1770s, spread in Austria about 1800. The earliest evidence of deliberate folksong collection occurs in the topographical and statistical survey of Neuberg in Styria of 1803, which gives the words and melodies of seven songs, including a Lulezer as sung by the dairymaids on the Alpine pastures, in broad melodic construction and without text. The survey was made at the instigation of Archduke Johann and asked for the ‘description of the principal popular entertainments and pleasures, rustic games, etc., of the people, with information about the most common folksongs or those peculiar to a certain place, national melodies, with the music if possible, dances, etc., and details of the usual musical instruments’. In this the purpose of early Austrian folksong collections differs from the literary aims of such collectors in Germany as Brentano and Arnim, who edited Des Knaben Wunderhorn (1806–8). Probably the most interesting documents from the Archduke Johann collection were those provided by Johann Felix Knaffl, financial administrator of Fohnsdorf. In his ‘Attempt at a Statistical Account of the Financial District of Fohnsdorf in the Judenburg Region’, he tried to show the difference between the music of rustic performers and the contemporary ‘classical’ music of such composers as Haydn. He gave a German dance in what he described as its ‘botched’ version (verhunzt,:to his mind, incorrectly harmonized and performed by rustic musicians who could not keep in tune) and also in its ‘correct’ version (ex.1). The independent Austrian approach to folksong collection at this period is also evident in the appeal for songs to be collected in all parts of the monarchy, made in 1811 by the Viennese Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde.
Also of great documentary value are the first folksong collections to be printed in Austria: Meinert's Alte teutsche Volkslieder in der Mundart des Kuhländchens (1817) and Žiška and Schottky's Oesterreichische Volkslieder (1819), the former collection without but the latter including musical notation (fig.12: Drei Wünsche, from Žiška and Schottky, illustrates the wide-ranging melodic structure found in the Alpine area). Von Spaun's Lieder, Tänze und Alpenmelodien (1845) is the first of a series of Austrian literary editions of folksongs. At the same period Alpine singers from the Tyrol, Salzburg and Styria toured Europe and America, performing in traditional costume and bringing Heimatlieder (‘homeland songs’) and traditional love songs as well as the Jodler (yodel) into concert halls and places of light entertainment. These were the folksong genres to which collectors, publishers and performers turned increasingly, while narrative and historical genres such as the ballad and the legend attracted little attention. Arrangements of folk music were performed in the salons of the aristocracy and the middle classes, for instance Eduard von Lannoy's Nationale Sang- und Tanzweisen des österreichischen Kaiserstaates: eine Sammlung charakteristischer Rondos für das Pianoforte, published about 1830 in two volumes, one for Austria and one for Styria, and Bernhard Romberg's Divertimento über Österreichische-Volkslieder für das Violoncello mit Begleitung des Piano-Forte. Archduke Johann, who had instigated folksong collection in Austria, was not only the dedicatee of many editions of folksongs and compositions in the folk style, but also frequently featured himself, as ‘Prinz Johann’, in songs of the folkloristic type.
Peter Rosegger's suggestion that a ‘society for the performance of the old folksong’ should be formed (Bergpredigten, 1885) led to the founding of the Deutscher Volks gesang-Verein in Wien by Josef Pommer in 1889. This new choral manner of performing folksong, with its national German aspects, spread only slowly in several German-speaking Austrian cities. The journal Das deutsche Volkslied began publication in Vienna in 1899, dealt with all activities relating to folksong and continued until 1947. Pommer's name is also connected with the ‘production theory’, according to which folksongs began as anonymous compositions by the people, who then polished them. Consequently, it was thought, folksongs inherently would be ‘of the people’, simple, plain, natural, true, heartfelt and national in tone (J. Pommer, 1915, p.155). In 1901 the Viennese publishing firm Universal Edition proposed an independent plan for the collection and publication of Austrian folksongs which was approved by the Minister of Culture. At Pommer's suggestion, this led to the creation in 1904 of a folksong project under the auspices of the Austrian Ministry of Information, whereby a number of experts (linguists, musicologists and folklorists) would coordinate the collection and academic publication of folksongs. However, the outbreak of World War I prevented this plan from being realized. A volume of songs from the Gottschee area, described as being ready for press before 1915, was not completed and published until over 50 years later (in three volumes, 1969–84, ed. Brednich and Suppan). Since the end of World War II, and in changed political circumstances, the Österreichische Volksliedwerk organization has put Pommer's ideas into practice in extra-curricular education for young people and adults. Comparative musicological and ethnomusicological work on Austrian folksong was, however, slow to begin.
Austria, §II: Traditional music
The epic and stichic forms of the Gottschee ballad tradition derived from older, medieval styles of song and continued into the 20th century. This tradition was first ‘discovered’ by German scholars who found relics of the Kudrun epic and the old dialect in the texts, and eventually Walter Wiora pointed out its specific musical character. The people who were moved by the Counts of Ortenberg in the 14th century from the Carinthian area of the east Tyrol to the Gottschee area in southern Krain (now Slovenia) lived in linguistic isolation but not without contact with their south Slav neighbours, and over six centuries they maintained musical practices of the late medieval sung narrative. The typical series of descending, closely graduated lines is well illustrated by the ballad Der ausgeweidete Jäger (‘The Disembowelled Huntsman’; Brednich and Suppan, 1969, no.9: ex.2). Another example is the ballad Der Tod und der Schultheiss (‘Death and the Village Mayor’; Brednich and Suppan, 1969, no.119: ex.3).
Epic and stichic forms are found in the Gottschee legends and in the early sacred cries and songs of the Erlauer Spiele (ed. Suppan and Janota, 1990).
Alpine
vocal forms are marked by wide-ranging melodies in natural notes still played
on trumpets made of wood, cowhorns, other animal horns and the more recent
alphorn. They include the Almschrei (calls for gathering cattle together
or summoning people to work) the Alpsegen and Kühreigen, the Juchzer
and the Jodler. These forms are primarily concerned with acoustic
communication: signals between people, between people and animals, or between
people and gods. In this context Wiora speaks of ‘elementary forms of singing’
belonging to a development preceding song itself. The rhythmically free,
strongly melismatic movements, without verbal or tonal links, have mainly been
recorded in the Salzkammergut area by Konrad Mautner and Hans Gielge.
Characteristics of the Almschrei are the powerfully sung high note and
the descending melodic structure associated with exhaustion. In ex.4, an Almschrei from the
Salzkammergut, the uncertain melodic construction, in which the fourth
oscillates between F and F
, indicates the influence of the natural scale (of
the alphorn).
Sichardt gives an account of the polyphonic Jodlerof the Austrian Alps, which is stylistically and formally related to Renaissance music in an area always noted for the close links between sacred and rustic musical forms. Both the tenor and the canonic principles occur in the records of oral tradition. Often, as in the songs of the Carinthian Wildsänger, the leading voice is in the second tenor, so that the polyphony builds up from the centre, as in vocal polyphony of the 15th and 16th centuries. The terms used also indicate this feature when the high voice is described in folk terminology as the ‘Überschlag’ (‘superius’) (ex.5). Ex.6 is an example of a two-part Nacheinander Jochizer, recorded near Irdning in the Ennstal area of Styria.
The pastoral melos survives in a stylized form and has adapted to the major scale in polyphonic sung forms of the yodel, in the instrumental Ländler dances of Upper Austria and in Styrian dances, with mannerisms also appearing at times in the melodic and, above all, the rhythmic structure, and in the original and quick 3/4 rhythms of the Salzkammergut Schleunigen. Only the main part is fixed; the bass and the accompanying parts are improvised after it has been heard. Accompaniment frequently consists of a flute or clarinet, two fiddles and bass (ex.7). For gradual progressions when there is no alternating harmony, the harmonization scheme consists of a series of triads or 6th chords, and the main part is the lowest (ex.8).
Ländler and Styrian dances are played sometimes on the diatonic or ‘Styrian’ dulcimer, sometimes on the diatonic or ‘Styrian’ accordion first made in the 19th century, with the choice of keys limited to tonics, subdominants and dominants.
From the beginning of the 19th century, folksong collection has levelled out and simplified what used to be a primarily oral tradition by writing it down, adapting it to tempered tuning and obliterating characteristic regional performance features relating to techniques of ornamentation and slurring, rhythmic irregularities and individual forms of polyphony. In this way, with a few exceptions, an artistically inert, homogenized kind of Alpine folk music was created from Vorarlberg and the Tyrol to Lower Austria and the Burgenland, a style that could be easily reproduced in its polyphonic triads and 6ths in the major, and could thus be easily trivialized. This was the origin of the ‘Upper Krain Sound’ in the fashionable light music of the 1970s and 80s, an ensemble for dance and light music consisting of clarinet, trumpet, euphonium, accordion, guitar and percussion, sometimes with song. Austria's most popular television programme, the folkloristic ‘Musikantenstadl’, took the ‘Upper Krain Sound’ far beyond Austria itself in the shape of what was known as Lederhosenmusik. In the 1990s, hybrid forms mingled techniques of electronically amplified rock music with Alpine folk music traditions (e.g. ‘Hubert von Goisern’).
The Kärntnerlied (‘Carinthian song’), on the other hand, has retained some individuality, particularly through the five-part polyphony with a high upper part (ex.9) performed only by men (Wildsänger), and especially in its further development as the Neues Kärtner Volkslied. Carinthia is notable among the provinces of Austria in that its vocal traditions are stronger than those of instrumental music. Amateur musical activities reflect this fact: Carinthia has more choirs than community wind bands, while in the other Austrian provinces wind bands considerably outnumber choirs.
Within the Republic of Austria, a Slovenian minority in Carinthia, and Croatian and Hungarian minorities in the Burgenland maintain the musical traditions of their countries of origin. For both the south Slav groups, the Tambura ensembles (see Croatia) have recently become a symbol of their ethnic independence.
Austria, §II: Traditional music
A. von Spaun: ‘Das österreichische Volkslied’, Album aus Österreich ob der Enns (Linz, 1843, 2/1896)
A. Schlossar: ‘Die deutschen Volkslieder in Steiermark’, Österreichische Cultur- und Literaturbilder (Vienna, 1879), 197–421
E.K. Blümml, ed.: Quellen und Forschungen zur deutschen Volkskunde (Vienna, 1908–12)
R. Lach: Eine Tiroler Liederhandschrift aus dem 18. Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1923)
V. von Geramb, ed.: Die Knaffl-Handschrift: eine obersteirische Volkskunde aus dem Jahre 1813 (Berlin and Leipzig, 1928)
A. Kollitsch: Geschichte des Kärntnerlieds (Klagenfurt, 1935–6)
H. Commendah: ‘Die Gebrauchshandschriften der alten Landlageiger’, Zeitschriftfür Volkskunde, xlviii (1939, 181–204
L. Schmidt: ‘Die kulturgeschichtlichen Grundlagen des Volksgesanges in Österreich’, Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde, xlv (1948), 105–29
W. Wiora: Zur Frühgeschichte der Musik in den Alpenländern (Basle, 1949)
A. Riedl and K.M. Klier: Lied-Flugblattdrucke aus dem Burgenland (Eisenstadt, 1958)
W. Suppan: ‘Ein christlich Lied wider die Türken und die Doler Weise’, Jb für Liturgik und Hymnologie, ix (1964), 152–6
W. Suppan: ‘Nikolaus Beuttners Gesangbuch, Graz 1602, und die mündliche Überlieferung’, Innerösterreich 1564–1619, ed. A. Novotny and B. Sutter, Joannea, iii (Graz, 1968), 261–95
W. Suppan: ‘Das steirische Volkslied des 19. Jahrhunderts im Spiegel seiner Forscher, Sammler und Pfleger’, Jb des österreichischen Volksliedwerkes, xix (1970), 75–95
L. Schmidt: ‘Quellenforschungen zum älteren Volkslied’, AÖAW, cvii (1971), 191–207
W. Suppan: Deutsches Liedleben zwischen Renaissance und Barock (Tutzing, 1973)
R.H.P. Helmer: European Pastoral Calls and their Possible Influence on Western Liturgical Chant (diss., Columbia U., 1975)
L. Kretzenbacher: Südost-Überlieferungen zum apokryphen ‘Traum Mariens’, Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: philosophisch-historische Klasse, Jg.1975/1 (Munich, 1975)
W. Suppan: ‘Research on Folk Music in Austria since 1800’, YIFMC, viii (1977), 117–29
W. Suppan: ‘Volksmusik seit 1800’, Musikgeschichte Österreichs, ed. R. Flotzinger and G. Gruber, ii (Graz, 1979), 281–311
W. Suppan: ‘Rechtsgeschichte im Volkslied – Rechtsgeschehen um das Volkslied’, Festschrift für Berthold Sutter, ed. G. Kocher and G.D. Hasiba (Graz, 1983), 353–79
L. Kretzenbacher: Hiobs-Erinnerungen zwischen Donau und Adria, Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: philosophisch-historische Klasse, Jg. 1987/1 (Munich, 1987)
O. Hafner: Das grosse Erzherzog Johann-Buch (Graz, 1992)
L. Kretzenbacher: Leben und Geschichte des Volksschauspiels in der Steiermark (Graz, 1992)
W. Salmen, ed.: Musik und Tanz zur Zeit Kaiser Maximilian I (Innsbruck, 1992)
W. Suppan: ‘Bürgerliches und bäuerliches Musizieren in Mittelalter und früher Neuzeit’, Musikgeschichte Österreichs, ed. R. Flotzinger, i (Vienna, 1995), 139–67
R. Zoder: Altösterreichische Volkstänze (Vienna, 1922–8, 2/1946–55)
H. Lager: Unsere Tänze (Vienna, 1941)
I. Peter: Tänze aus Österreich (Vienna, 1947)
A. Novak: Steirische Tänze: Volkstänze und Bauernspiele aus Steiermark (Graz, 1949)
R. Wolfram: Die Volkstänze in Österreich und verwandte Tänze in Europa (Salzburg, 1951)
S. Schutte: Der Ländler (Strasbourg and Baden-Baden, 1970)
K. Horak: Tiroler Volkstänze aus alter Überlieferung (Schwaz, 1971)
W. Deutsch and A. Gschwantler: Steyerische Tänze (Vienna, 1994)
Das deutsche Volkslied (1899–1944; contd as Volkslied, Volkstanz, Volksmusik, 1947–9; index, 1947)
E.K. Blümml, F.F. Kohl and J. Reiter: Die Volksliedbewegung in Deutschösterreich (Vienna, 1910)
C. Rotter: Der Schnaderhüpfl-Rhythmus (Berlin, 1912)
J. Pommer: ‘Das deutsche Volkslied in Österreich’, Mein Österreich, mein Heimatland, ed. S. Schneider and B. Imendörffer (Vienna, 2/1915), 152–65
R. Lach: ‘Die Tonkunst in den Alpen’, Die österreichischen Alpen, ed. H. Leitmeier (Leipzig, 1928), 332–80
D. Hummel: ‘Bibliographie des weltlichen Volksliedes in Niederösterreich’, Jb für Landeskunde von Niederösterreich, xxiv (1931), 124–258
W. Sichardt: Der alpenländische Jodler und der Ursprung des Jodelns (Berlin, 1939)
K. Horak, ed.: Burgenländische Volksschauspiele (Vienna and Leipzig, 1940)
W. Kolneder: Die vokale Mehrstimmigkeit in der Volksmusik der österreichischen Alpenländer (diss., U. of Innsbruck, 1949; Winterthur, 1981)
L. Kretzenbacher: Lebendiges Volksschauspiel in Steiermark (Vienna, 1951)
Jahrbuch des österreichischen Volksliedwerkes (Vienna, 1952–)
K.M. Klier: Volkstümliche Musikinstrumente in den Alpen (Kassel, 1956)
F. Wild, W. Graf and E. Hermann: Katalog des Phonogrammarchivs der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Vienna, 1960)
K.M. Klier and J. Bitsche, eds.: Bibliographie des Volksliedes in Vorarlberg (Montfort, 1964)
K.M. Klier: Allgemeine Bibliographie des Burgenlandes, v: Volkskunde (Eisenstadt, 1965)
W. Suppan: ‘Volksmusik im Bezirk Weiz’, Weizerische Geschichte und Landschaft (in Einzeldarstellungen), viii (Weiz, 1967), 19–59
W. Wünsch, ed.: Beiträge zur österreichischen Volksliedkunde (Graz, 1967)
L. Schmidt: Volksgesang und Volkslied: Proben und Probleme (Berlin, 1970)
R.W. Brednich, L. Röhrich and W. Suppan, eds: Handbuch des Volksliedes (Munich, 1973–5)
K. Beitl, ed.: L. Schmidt Bibliographie (Vienna, 1977)
M. Haager: Die instrumentale Volksmusik im Salzkammergut, Musikethnologische Sammelbände, iii (Graz, 1979)
K. Diemann: Schrammelmusik (Graz, 1981)
H. Thiel: ‘Totenbrauch und Totenlied in Fladnitz, Schrems und Fladnitzberg (Oststeiermark)’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxvi (1981), 61–74
W. Deutsch and others, eds.: Volksmusik in Österreich (Vienna, 1984)
W. Suppan: Volksmusik im Bezirk Liezen (Trautenfels, 1984)
H. Brenner: Stimmt an das Lied: die Geschichte des österreichischen Arbeiterchorwesens (Graz, 1986)
J. Pöschl: Das österreichische Jagdhornbläserbuch (Graz, 1990)
W. Suppan, ed.: Schladminger Gespräche zum Thema Musik und Tourismus, Musikethnologische Sammelbände, xii (Tutzing, 1991)
H. Thiel and W. Deutsch: ‘Zur Vokalmusik aus “Ebene Reichenau”/Kärnten nach Aufnahmeplatten des “Reichsrundfunks 1942”’, Studien zur Musikwissenschaft, xli (1992), 245–56
R. Verdel: Die Entwicklung des Tamburizzawesens in Südkärnten (thesis, Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst in Graz, 1992)
W. Deutsch and M. Walcher, eds.: Sommerakademie Volkskultur (Vienna, 1992–4)
B. Habla, ed.: Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von Wolfgang Suppan (Tutzing, 1993)
T. Hochradner and G. Walterskirchen, eds.: 175 Jahre ‘Stille Nacht! Heilige Nacht!’ (Salzburg, 1994)
W. Kraxner, ed.: Das geistliche Lied in Kärnten, Mageregger Gespräche zur Volkskultur in Kärnten, iv (Klagenfurt, 1994) [incl. W. Suppan: ‘Das geistliche Lied in den Ostalpenländern’]
W. Deutsch: ‘90 Jahre Österreichisches Volksliedwerk’, Jb des österreichischen Volksliedwerkes, xliv (1995), 12–50
J.G. Meinert: Alte teutsche Volkslieder in der Mundart des Kuhländchens (Vienna and Hamburg, 1817, 2/1909)
F. Žiška and J.M. Schottky: Oesterreichische Volkslieder mit ihren Singweisen (Pest, 1819/R, rev. 3/1906 by F.S. Krauss)
A. von Spaun: Lieder, Tänze und Alpenmelodien (Vienna, 1845)
M.V. Süss: Salzburgische Volks-Lieder mit ihren Singweisen (Salzburg, 1865/R)
R. Sztachovics: Braut-Sprüche und Braut-Lieder auf dem Heideboden (Vienna, 1867)
P.K. Rosegger and R. Heuberger: Volkslieder aus Steiermark mit Melodien (Pest, 1872)
A. Schlossar: Deutsche Volkslieder aus Steiermark (Innsbruck, 1881)
W. Pailler: Weihnachtslieder und Krippenspiele aus Oberösterreich und Tirol (Innsbruck, 1881–3)
A. Werle: Almrausch, Almliada aus Steiermark (Graz, 1884)
J. Gabler: Geistliche Volkslieder, gesammelt in der Diözese St. Pölten (Regensburg and Linz, 1890)
H. Neckheim and J. Pommer: 222 echte Kärntnerlieder (Vienna, 1891–3)
F.F. Kohl: Echte Tiroler-Lieder (Vienna, 1899, rev., enlarged 2/1913–15)
J. Pommer: 444 Jodler und Juchezer aus Steiermark (Vienna, 1902)
E.K. Blümml: Erotische Volkslieder aus Deutsch-Österreich (Vienna, 1906, 2/1993)
K. Mautner: Steyerisches Rasplwerk: Vierzeiler, Lieder und Gasslreime aus Goessl am Grundlsee (Vienna, 1910)
K. Mautner: Alte Lieder und Weisen aus dem steyermärkischen Salzkammergute (Vienna, 1919/R, 2/1925)
R. Wolkan: Wiener Volkslieder aus fünf Jahrhunderten (Vienna, 1920)
H. Commenda: Von der Eisenstrasse (Vienna, 1926)
H. Pommer: Volkslieder und Jodler aus Vorarlberg (Vienna, 1926)
V. Zack: Volkslieder und Jodler aus dem obersteirischen Murgebiet (Vienna, 1927)
K. Kronfuss, A. and F. Pöschl: Niederösterreichische Volkslieder und Jodler aus dem Schneeberggebiet (Vienna, 1930)
R. Zoder: Dorfmusik (Kassel, 1931–7)
R. Zoder and K.M. Klier: Volkslieder aus Niederösterreich (Vienna, 1932–4)
O. Eberhard and C. Rotter: Salzburgische Bauernlieder (Vienna and Leipzig, 1933)
H. Gielge: Rund um Aussee (Vienna, 1935)
V. Korda and K.M. Klier: Volksmusik aus Niederösterreich (Vienna, 1937)
K.M. Klier: Schatz österreichischer Weihnachtslieder (Klosterneuburg, 1937–8)
G. Kotek: Volkslieder und Jodler um den Schneeberg und Semmering (Vienna, 1938, 2/1943)
K.M. Klier: Volkslieder aus dem Waldviertel (Vienna, 1942)
R. Maier: Kärntner Fasten- und Osterlieder (Klagenfurt, 1953)
A. Anderluh: Kärntens Volksliedschatz (Klagenfurt, 1960–93)
A. Quellmalz: Südtiroler Volkslieder (Kassel, 1968–76)
R.W. Brednich and W. Suppan, eds.: Gottscheer Volkslieder (Mainz, 1969–84)
W. Suppan: Lieder einer steirischen Gewerkensgattin aus dem 18. Jahrhundert (Graz, 1970)
N. Wallner: Deutsche Marienlieder der Enneberger Ladiner (Südtirol) (Vienna, 1970)
E. Borneman: Unsere Kinder im Spiegel ihrer Lieder, Reime, Verse und Rätsel (Olten and Freiburg, 1972–4)
W. Kainz: Weststeirische Volksdichtung (Graz, 1976)
J. Künzig and W. Werner-Künzig: Volkslieder aus Deutsch-Mokra (Freiburg, 1978) [incl. discs]
C. Bresgen and W. Keller: ‘… die Liab ist übergross!’: Weihnacht im Salzburger Volkslied (Munich and Salzburg, 1979)
H. Dreo, W. Burian and S. Gmasz: Ein burgenländisches Volksliederbuch (Eisenstadt, 1988)
W. Suppan and J. Janota: Texte und Melodien der ‘Erlauer Spiele’ (Tutzing, 1990)
H. Gielge and G. Haid: Klingende Berge: Juchzer, Rufe und Jodler (Trautenfels, 1992)
W. Deutsch: Volksmusik in Niederösterreich (Vienna, 1993)
L. Steiner: Lieder des Weihnachtsfestkreises (Vienna, 1995)