City in Austria. From its founding in the 8th century until the dissolution of the archdiocese in 1806, it was the seat of a series of prince-archbishops whose court was the centre of the city's musical life. Salzburg was incorporated into Austria in 1816; in the 20th century it became specially noted for its festival.
CLIFF EISEN
The two most important centres for the development of liturgical chant in Salzburg and its missionary districts were the abbey of St Peter, founded by St Rupert, and the cathedral, founded by St Virgilius in 774. The earliest musical sources from St Peter are in St Gallen notation; those of the cathedral follow the Messine tradition. In 798 Arno, the first Archbishop of Salzburg (798–821), instructed that services at the cathedral were to be held ‘following the tradition of the Romans’; statutes from 799 show that congregational hymns were permitted in addition to the psalm settings and songs sung by the monks. The earliest evidence for the practice of early polyphony in Salzburg is a 14th-century, gothically neumed graduale, in St Peter; a 12th-century copy of Aribo Scholasticus's De musica also survives there. A specifically Salzburg liturgy, recorded in an early breviary (A-Smi MII6), can be traced back to the last quarter of the 12th century; similarly important is the antiphoner of St Peter (A-Wn 2700) of around 1160, possibly commissioned by Abbot Heinrich I (later Bishop of Gurk).
The lively musical life of the city is documented by the presence there of instrument makers, bellfounders and other musicians. The position of cathedral Kantor, whose responsibilities included teaching singing, was established in 1223 by Archbishop Eberhard II (1220–46). Christmas and Easter were occasions for sacred non-liturgical or quasi-liturgical performances, often in dramatic form. One of the earliest such productions was the ‘Bishop's play’ for children, performed on the Feast of the Holy Innocents (28 December); this tradition continued until the time of Michael Haydn, whose Missa S Aloysii, composed for the Kapellknaben and dated 21 December 1777, is scored for two sopranos and alto together with violins and continuo. Although Eberhard is addressed in Neidhart von Reuental's ‘Winter songs’, there is no evidence that he was engaged at the Salzburg court; the same is true of the Minnesingers Hartwig von Rute, Pleier and Ulrich von Etzenbach.
In 1393 Archbishop Pilgrim von Puchheim (1365–96) founded the Pilgrimskapelle in the cathedral, where festive services were performed by up to 12 musicians and a ‘beautiful and artful organ’ that was dismantled only at the end of the 16th century. Pilgrim, known in particular for his secular sympathies, was patron to the Monk of Salzburg, the first poet–musician to write in German. His work is characterized by the introduction of liturgical (Gregorian), non-liturgical and popular elements in his melodies; they were frequently performed at Schloss Freisaal, a castle south of Salzburg. The Mondsee-Wiener Liederhandschrift, the earliest part of which includes songs by the Monk of Salzburg, bears witness to the lavish musical life of Salzburg's wealthy citizens; the manuscript was owned by the goldsmith Peter Spörl from, at the latest, 1472. At the same time, musical institutions proliferated in the city and in neighbouring towns such as Hofgastein and Radstadt. Not only the cathedral but also St Peter and the Stadtpfarrkirche (now the Franziskanerkirche) employed their own Kantors; the archbishops regularly employed city musicians as well as trumpeters and drummers.
With the spread of humanism, Salzburg became a leading early 16th-century centre of south German Renaissance art, particularly during the reign of Matthäus Lang (1519–40), who took into his court musicians from the former Hofkapelle of Maximilian I; both Heinrich Finck (from 1524) and the organist Paul Hofhaimer (from 1522) served under Lang. A document from 1526, probably incomplete, describes a music establishment with a Kapellmeister, two organists, a composer and six singers; eight boys sang in the choir. Hofhaimer's successors included Caspar Glanner and Kaspar Bockh, a prominent organ builder who in 1581 worked on the cathedral's small organ, built on a balcony ‘on which the musicians might stand to execute their music on high feasts’. The Salzburg cathedral music was held in high esteem during Lang's reign; its virtues are praised by Ludwig Senfl in the foreword to his Liber selectarum cantionum (1520). It was during Lang's reign, too, that Johannes Stomius, who in 1530 founded a private school in Salzburg, wrote his Prima ad musicen instructio (Nuremberg, 1537), which includes discussions of solmization, modes and mensural theory. During the reign of Johann Jakob (1560–85), Lassus established connections with Salzburg; his second book of masses (1570) is dedicated to the archbishop. One Salzburg composer of the time was Sebastian Hassenknopf, whose 27 Sacrae cantiones were published in Munich in 1588. The first recorded printed music in Salzburg is a 1605 missal from the court printing press, founded in 1598 by Georg Kürner.
Inspired by his student years at the Collegio Germanico and the cappella of his uncle Marcus Sitticus Altems in Rome, Archbishop Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau (1587–1612) undertook a thorough reorganization of the court music, which was divided into four groups, nominally under separate administration: the court music proper (singers and instrumentalists) under the direction of the Obersthofmeisteramt; the court- and field-trumpeters, under the direction of the Oberststallmeister; the cathedral music (choral deacons and choristers), under the direction of the Domkapitel; and the choirboys. Much of the responsibility for establishing this new order fell to the Kapellmeister Tiburtio Massaino, who brought to Salzburg many prominent musicians from the court at Innsbruck. Among other liturgical reforms, Wolf Dietrich also introduced the Roman rite. The archbishop actively cultivated musical ties with the south: Agostino Agazzari's first book of Sacrum cantionum (1602) and Orazio Vecchi's Hymni qui per totum annum in Ecclesia Romana concinuntur (1604), as well as works by Leo Leoni and Jacobo Flori, were dedicated to him. He also began a number of important architectural projects that eventually transformed Salzburg, with its numerous fountains, open squares and churches, into ‘the Rome of the north’; in doing so he established Italian precedents that were to dominate Salzburg's cultural life until the dissolution of the archdiocese.
Wolf Dietrich's cousin and successor, Archbishop Marcus Sitticus von Hohenems (1612–19), a nephew of Carlo Borromeo, cultivated similar economic and cultural links with Italy; during his reign Salzburg enjoyed a first flowering of the Baroque. His first Kapellmeister was Francesco Turco from Verona. Marcus Sitticus was also among the first Salzburg archbishops to cultivate secular music; Aurelio Bonelli's Primo libro di villanelle a tre voci (1616) and Sigismondo d'India's third book of madrigals (1615), as well as Pietro Lappi's first book of four-, five- and six-voice masses (1613) and Pietro Pace's eighth book of motets (1619), were dedicated to him. In 1614 a stage on the Italian model was erected in the archbishop's residence and it was there that the first opera was performed outside Italy, a carnival performance in 1614 of Monteverdi's Orfeo (Seifert, 1988); this may have come about as a result of a visit to Salzburg by the first Orfeo, Francesco Rasi, who in 1612 presented the archbishop with a manuscript of monodic sacred and secular compositions titled Musiche da camera e chiesa. In 1615 the famous Steintheater was built at Schloss Hellbrunn, the archbishop's summer residence; it is the oldest surviving garden theatre in the German-speaking world.
A Benedictine gymnasium was founded in Salzburg in 1617 and in 1622, during the reign of Paris Lodron (1619–53), the Salzburg Benedictine university, later one of the most important centres in Salzburg for the cultivation of music and drama, was established. At first, however, music theatre was not widely cultivated; partly as a result of the Thirty Years War and local plagues, monthly expenses for the court music sank from 508 gulden in 1630 to only 85 gulden in 1651. The central event during Paris Lodron's reign was the completion and consecration in 1628 of a new cathedral; the Romanesque church of St Rupert had burnt down in 1589. The consecration is described in Thomas Weiss's Dedicatio salisburgensis (1629): among other works, a 12-chorus Te Deum by Hofkapellmeister Stefano Bernardi was sung. (The 53-part Missa salisburgensis, previously thought to have been written for this event by Orazio Benevoli, is almost certainly by Heinrich Biber; it was performed in 1682 to celebrate the 1100th anniversary of the founding of the archbishopric; see fig.1.) Bernardi was succeeded in 1640 by Abraham Megerle, author of the important and partly autobiographical Speculum musico-mortale, das ist: Musicalischer Todtenspiegel (1672). Megerle is said to have written more than 2000 compositions, mostly for the church; few of them survive. His most important work may be the incompletely preserved Ara musica of 1647, which includes 108 settings of the Mass proper; these display the full range of performance options at Salzburg Cathedral and are among the earliest works to make deliberate use of the cathedral's four choir lofts
The Bohemian-Austrian prince-archbishops of the second half of the 17th century, Guidobald Graf Thun (ruled 1654–68), Max Gandolph von Kuenburg (ruled 1668–87) and Johann Ernst Graf Thun (ruled 1687–1709), pursued political neutrality and circumspect fiscal management, both of which contributed to the court's stable and thriving cultural life; unlike their predecessors, they frequently hired and promoted northern composers, among them the Bohemian Heinrich Biber, the Alsatian Georg Muffat and Andreas Hofer from Reichenhall. Biber joined the court music in 1670; his early works for Salzburg are mostly instrumental music, including the Mystery Sonatas (probably dedicated to Max Gandolph before 1676) and two collections of ensemble music, the Sonatae tam aris quam aulis servientes (1676) and the Mensa sonora (1680). After his appointment as Kapellmeister in 1684, Biber turned more frequently to church music; he also wrote several stage works, all of which are lost except for the opera Chi la dura la vince (1687).
Muffat was the most international of 17th-century Salzburg composers: born in Savoy, a student of Lully in Paris, and active in Prague and Vienna before his appointment in 1678 as Salzburg court organist, he was sent by Archbishop Max Gandolph to Rome. There in 1682 he became acquainted with Corelli and Bernardo Pasquini, and learned ‘the art of keyboard playing in the Italian style’, reflected in his Armonico and Apparatus musico-organisticus. Muffat's opera Le fatali felicità di Plutone, now lost, was composed for the enthronement of Johann Ernst Graf Thun in 1687; the only surviving vocal work by him is the double-chorus Missa in labore requies. Although Muffat left Salzburg for Passau in 1690, he retained strong ties to the archdiocese: the Ausserlesener mit Ernst- und Lust-gemengter Instrumental-Music of 1701 is dedicated to the cathedral provost Maximilian Ernst von Scherffenberg. Muffat's synthesis of French, German and Italian styles put Salzburg squarely at the centre of late 17th-century musical life.
It was probably in connection with his duties at the Kapellhaus that Muffat wrote the Regulae concentuum partiturae (A-Wm I B7, dated 1699), a work that inspired generations of music theorists in Salzburg, including Johann Baptist Samber, whose Manductio ad organum (1704), Continuation ad manductionem organicam (1707) and Elucidatio musicae choralis (1710) cover elementary music theory, solmization, continuo, organ disposition and registration, and fugue. In 1719 Samber's pupil and successor as cathedral organist, Matthäus Gugl, published his Fundamentum partiturae in compendio data; a Partiturfundament, jointly attributed to Adlgasser and Michael Haydn, survives in St Peter (A-Sca Hay 2120.1). Leopold Mozart's Gründliche Violinschule of 1756 belongs to a different and specifically 18th-century tradition, that of the instrumental tutor.
At the end of the 17th century, the most important local genre in Salzburg was the Finalkomödie or school drama, a fusion of Italian opera and spoken pedagogical Benedictine play. Performed mainly at the Universitätstheater to mark the end of the academic year, music in the school dramas was at first restricted to choruses at the beginnings and ends of acts; by the 1670s the works consisted of a succession of recitatives and arias, based in part on the model of Italian opera. Until the closing of the Universitätstheater in 1778 by Archbishop Hieronymus Colloredo, the school drama was the highpoint of Salzburg's theatrical year; virtually every important composer in the archdiocese composed works for the Benedictine stage, including Biber, Matthias Sigismund Biechteler von Greiffenthal (Kapellmeister, 1706–43), Eberlin, Leopold Mozart, Anton Cajetan Adlgasser and Michael Haydn; Mozart's sole contribution to the genre is Die Schuldigkeit des ersten und fürnehmsten Gebottes, k35.
Following Biber's death in 1704, musical fashion in Salzburg took a decisive turn towards transalpine Italian models, in particular the works of Antonio Caldara, deputy Hofkapellmeister at Vienna. Caldara first visited Salzburg in 1712, when he was commissioned to write the solo cantata Quegl'ochhi vezzosi; his Il giubilo della salza was composed four years later to celebrate the name day of Archbishop Franz Anton von Harrach (1709–27). At least 19 of Caldara's operas and staged oratorios were performed in Salzburg between 1716 and 1727; in addition, the cathedral acquired numerous masses, offertories, vespers settings and other sacred works (now in A-Sd).
Harrach was succeeded by Leopold Anton Eleuthnerius, Baron of Firmian (1727–44), Jakob Ernst, Count of Liechtenstein (1745–7), and Siegmund Christoph, Count of Schrattenbach (1753–71). Schrattenbach in particular was lavish in his support of the court music; he was also the Mozarts' strongest supporter in Salzburg. Leopold Mozart, who joined the Salzburg court in 1743, advanced rapidly during Schrattenbach's tenure, serving from 1763 as deputy Kapellmeister. The archbishop also gave Wolfgang his first position at court, as unpaid third concertmaster, in 1769, and subsidized, at least in part, the Mozarts' travels abroad.
Church music represented the primary compositional obligation of the court musicians; the dominant composer in the mid-18th century was Ernst Eberlin, who in 1749 had been appointed Kapellmeister, succeeding Biber's son, Carl Heinrich. Many of Eberlin's works are written in a learned, late-Baroque stile antico; others rely on a harmonically static, but rhythmically complex, stile moderno. After Eberlin's death in 1762 a younger generation held sway, including his son-in-law Anton Cajetan Adlgasser (court and cathedral organist 1750–77), Leopold Mozart and Michael Haydn; less accomplished composers, among them Giuseppe Lolli, Franz Ignaz Lipp and Anton Ferdinand Paris, also contributed to the Salzburg Cathedral repertory. Independent orchestral music flourished as well, more or less contemporary with similar developments at Mannheim and Vienna; the creation of this modern repertory must be credited to Caspar Christelli, Ferdinand Seidl and Leopold Mozart. Seidl in particular was a prolific composer of partitas, multi-movement works usually scored for violins, bass and two trumpets; the chief exponent of the symphony was Leopold Mozart. Orchestral composers of the succeeding generation include Michael Haydn, Wenzelt Hebelt, Georg Scheicher, Joseph Hafeneder and, especially during the 1770s, W.A. Mozart.
Perhaps the most important orchestral genre was the serenade which, like the Benedictine school drama, owed its origin to the university. Every year in August, in connection with the university graduation ceremonies, the students had a substantial orchestral work performed for their professors. Typically these serenades consisted of an opening and closing march and between six and nine other movements, among them two or three concerto-like movements for various instruments. Although the origin of this tradition is unknown, serenades are documented as a regular fixture of the academic year by the mid-1740s. Leopold Mozart, who composed more than 30 such works by 1757, was the most important early composer in the genre; later examples by Michael Haydn, Joseph Hafeneder and W.A. Mozart also survive.
In addition to their duties at court, local musicians were active at other institutions throughout the city or in the surrounding region, including St Peter, the Dreifaltigkeitskirche, the Nonnberg convent and monasteries at Laufen an der Salzach and Tittmoning (both lower down the river Salzach in Bavaria), Michaelbeuern and Mattsee. The most important of these was St Peter, where the Musikkapelle consisted largely of students; the court musicians, especially the Mozarts and Michael Haydn, were also frequent guests and performers at the abbey. Leopold Mozart had composed works for St Peter as early as 1753, Mozart's Mass k66 was written for the ordination of Cajetan Hagenauer, son of the Mozarts' landlord, and when Hagenauer was elected abbot in 1786, Michael Haydn composed for him the Missa S Dominici. During the last years of the 18th century and early years of the 19th the dominant musical personality there was Johann Nepomuk Rainprechter (1752–1812), a student of Leopold Mozart and Michael Haydn; an important contemporaneous document is the 1822 Catalogus rerum musicarum pro choro figurato by Martin Bischofreiter (1762–1845), which describes the abbey's impressive holdings of sacred music. Musical activity at the Nonnberg convent, founded by St Rupert about 712, can similarly be traced back to the Middle Ages (Niiyama, 1994); although strict closure was in effect from the late 1500s, the court musicians sometimes appeared there, to celebrate the election of a new abbess, or when the archbishop himself celebrated mass. Nonnberg played an important role in the cultivation of German sacred songs in Salzburg; it also represented the only outlet for women composers, such as Barbara Eberlin. Farther afield was the parish church of Mariae Himmelfahrt in Laufen, completed in 1334, which during the early 17th century cultivated Italian, as well as local Bavarian and Austrian, music; the Mozarts were well acquainted with the music personnel there. Michael Haydn's influence was particularly strong at Michaelbeuern, where his friend and sometimes amanuensis Werigand Rettensteiner (1751–1822) was for a time Chorregent (Hintermaier, 1985).
Significant changes in Salzburg's musical life came about with the election in 1772 of Schrattenbach's successor, Hieronymus Colloredo, Prince-Bishop of Gurk and second son of the imperial state vice-chancellor. Colloredo embarked almost immediately on an ambitious course to modernize the archdiocese. The school system was overhauled along Viennese lines and in 1778 the Universitätstheater was closed. This gap in Salzburg's theatrical life was made good in part by the creation of a public theatre in 1775, when Colloredo ordered that the Ballhaus in the Hannibalgarten (today the Makartplatz and site of the Landestheater) be rebuilt at the city's expense as a theatre for spoken drama and opera. The first troupe to play there, directed by Carl Wahr, included in its repertory Regnard's Der Zerstreute, with entr'actes by Joseph Haydn (Symphony no.60, ‘Il distratto’), and Gebler's Thamos, König in Aegypten, which may have been performed with incidental music by Mozart. Nevertheless, the theatre offered local composers little to replace the former Benedictine drama, and few of them contributed to its productions.
Colloredo also instituted numerous church reforms, many intended to make the liturgy more comprehensible. These included the abolition of some popular local traditions, such as the firing of cannons and the carrying of pictures and statues during church processions as well as the famous pilgrimage to Pinzgau; a shortening of the Mass (described by Mozart in a letter to Padre Martini of 4 September 1776); and the replacement of purely instrumental pieces traditionally performed at the gradual with choral compositions based on liturgical texts, as well as the replacement of Latin hymns sung in German. Impoverished as the church music may have become, it is thanks to these changes that Michael Haydn composed more than 100 offertories and graduals and later published his Heiliger Gesang. The reforms, spelt out in detail in Colloredo's pastoral letter of 1782, were not popular; congregations passively resisted the introduction of German hymns by not singing them and worshippers in parishes near the border frequently attended services in Bavarian churches, where instruments were still allowed.
Private music-making was an important part of Salzburg's musical life: several of Leopold and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's works were composed for the local nobility, including the divertimentos k247 and k334, as well as the ‘Haffner’ Serenade k250; Michael Haydn's male-voice quartets were composed for his friends at St Peter. In 1778 the archbishop's nephew, Johann Rudolf, Count Czernin, founded a private orchestra that gave weekly concerts at the palace of Count Lodron; a later private orchestra, which met at the house of Dr Silvester Barisani, physician to the archbishop, gave the first Salzburg performance of Mozart's ‘Linz’ symphony (no.36) in September 1784. Public concerts, first mounted at the instigation of the archbishop, became more frequent in Salzburg after 1781; travelling virtuosos frequently performed there, including several (Strinasacchi, J.L. Dussek and Storace) with connections to Mozart, who by then had moved to Vienna. The repertory at these concerts was increasingly dominated by the works of non-Salzburg composers. It was not until 1797 that a local theatrical troupe was established under the direction of Lorenz Hübner, editor of the Salzburger Intelligenzblatt, and Giuseppe Tomaselli, a court tenor. Directed by Franz Joseph Otter, the troupe included in its repertory Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail, Die Zauberflöte, Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni (the last two in German), as well as spoken dramas by Goethe and Schiller.
In 1803 Colloredo fled Salzburg in anticipation of a French invasion; the last Kapellmeister was Luigi Gatti (from 1783). Thereafter, the spiritual princedoms of both Passau and Eichstädt briefly came under Salzburg control and musical life enjoyed a last moment of prosperity during the reign of Archduke Ferdinand of Tuscany (1803–5). The court was finally abolished in 1806, and the best local musicians transferred to the Vienna Hofmusikkapelle.
When political stability was restored to Austria in 1816, Salzburg changed from an episcopal seat to a stagnant provincial town; for almost 40 years the city was without a significant musical culture. Of earlier institutions, only the Kaiserliches Königliches Nationaltheater (until 1806 the Hoftheater) survived; its repertory included Singspiele by Weigl, Dittersdorf and Wenzel Müller, as well as operas by Rossini, Cherubini, Mozart and Weber (Der Freischütz, 1825). In 1841, the Dommusikverein und Mozarteum, an institution for ‘the promotion of all branches of music, but especially church music’, was founded. Its first director was Alois Taux, the most important musician in mid-19th-century Salzburg. Taux was followed by Hans Schläger (1861) and Otto Bach (1868); Bruckner applied in vain for this post on both occasions. The society held its first music festival in 1842, for the unveiling of the Mozart memorial (Angermüller, 1992); the Salzburger Liedertafel was formed in 1847. A Mozart Centenary Festival was held in 1856, when Carl Mozart presented valuable Mozartiana to the Mozarteum. Much of the impetus for the developing Mozart cult came from Taux, who from 1839 served as Kapellmeister at the Nationaltheater. Other composers active during this period were Johann Schnaubeit, Carl Santner and Peter Singer. Church music, reformed during the reign of Archbishop Johannes Katschthaler (1900–14), was directed by the cathedral Kapellmeister Hermann Spies (1892–1920) and Joseph Messner (1926–69).
The Internationale Mozart-Stiftung, whose broad initial programme included supporting and encouraging musicians and music students, promoting concerts, building a library and archive and organizing periodic conventions of musicians, was founded in 1870 by Karl Freiherr von Sterneck (1813–93). In 1875 it started the first complete edition of Mozart's works; at music festivals held in 1877 and 1879, the Vienna Hofoper orchestra was conducted, respectively, by Otto Dessoff and Hans Richter. In 1880 Sterneck succeeded in freeing the Mozarteum from its administrative association with the Dommusikverein; it united with the Internationale Mozart-Stiftung to form the Internationale Stiftung Mozarteum. The first director of the public music school was Joseph Friedrich Hummel; it later became a conservatory (1914, state controlled from 1922), a Reichshochschule für Musik (1939–45), a Musikakademie (1953) and the Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst (1971). Among its outstanding directors were Bernhard Paumgartner (1917–38 and 1945–9), Clemens Krauss (1938–45) and Eberhard Preussner (1959–64). The most important composers working in Salzburg during the 20th century include Egon Kornauth, Joseph Messner, Friedrich Frischenschlager, Franz Ledwinka, Wilhelm Keller, Franz Herf, Rolf Maedel, Friedrich Neumann, Josef Maria Horvath, Andor Losonczy and Barna Kovats. In addition to the annual Salzburg Festival (see §4 below) there are other musical events in the city. For the bicentenary of Mozart's birth in 1956 the Internationale Stiftung Mozarteum initiated an annual series of concerts held at the end of January, the Salzburg Mozart Week (Salzburger Mozart-Woche). In 1967 Herbert von Karajan initiated a ten-day Easter Festival.
The first important predecessor of the present-day Salzburg Festival was the 1877 music festival held by the Mozart-Stiftung. Subsequent festivals under Richter (1879 and 1887, for the centenary of Don Giovanni), Jahn (1891, for Mozart's death centenary), Hofkapellmeister Joseph Hellmesberger (ii) (1901), Mottl (1904), Strauss and Mahler (1906, including a performance of Le nozze di Figaro by the Vienna Hofoper personally subsidized by Emperor Franz Joseph), Nikisch, Franz Schalk, and Weingartner (1910) led to the idea of a regular festival; one was planned for summer 1914 but was cancelled on the outbreak of war. In 1917 Friedrich Gehmacher and Heinrich Damisch founded the Salzburger Festspielhaus-Gemeinde in Vienna with a branch in Salzburg for the purpose of establishing an annual festival of drama and music with special emphasis on the works of Mozart; the first festival took place in 1920 with Max Reinhardt's production of Hofmannstahl's Jedermann in the Domplatz, since then a traditional event. Bernhard Paumgartner organized the first series of concerts at the 1921 festival; operas were first given at the 1922 festival in the small Stadttheater: Don Giovanni and Così fan tutte conducted by Strauss, and Le nozze di Figaro and Die Entführung aus dem Serail conducted by Schalk. There were no music performances at the 1923 festival, when the first official ISCM festival was held in Salzburg, and the entire 1924 festival was cancelled because of the general economic crisis.
1925 was an important year, with the opening of the Festspielhaus, the first lieder recital and the first radio broadcast of a festival event (Don Giovanni, 24 August). The Festspielhaus was rebuilt in 1926 by Clemens Holzmeister to seat 1200, first used for opera in 1927 (Fidelio) and altered in 1937 and 1939. Open-air performances have been given in the Felsenreitschule (Summer Riding School) since 1926; in the same year a contemporary opera, Strauss's Ariadne auf Naxos, was for the first time included among the festival events. During the 1930s Walter, Furtwängler, Knappertsbusch and Toscanini were the leading conductors; Herbert Graf produced many of the operas. After the Anschluss in 1938, however, many artists left or refused to perform in Salzburg, including Walter, Toscanini, Kleiber, Fritz Busch and Klemperer. Events were curtailed during World War II and the 1944 festival was cancelled.
The founding and early history of the Salzburg Festival has increasingly become a fashionable topic in cultural history; in one compelling view it is seen as a search for Austrian identity after the fall of the Habsburg monarchy, and as a conservative reaction against modernism (Steinberg, 1990). Since its resurrection in 1945 a number of premières have been given at the festival, notably Strauss's Die Liebe der Danae (1952) and Henze's The Bassarids (1966); productions of early operas have also been mounted, including Cavalieri's Rappresentatione di Anima, et di Corpo (1968). The Vienna PO has long been the musical backbone of the festival; in addition to playing for orchestral concerts, it has also served as the opera orchestra, chamber orchestra for the serenade concerts, and for the sacred concerts. The first guest orchestra to perform was the Budapest PO under Ernst von Dohnányi in 1931; the next was the Berlin PO in 1957. Among conductors, the festival has been dominated in the postwar era by Furtwängler, Böhm and Karajan, who until his death in 1989 also served as musical director. Karajan was succeeded as director in 1991 by Gérard Mortier; under his direction the festival has reintroduced the performance of classic 20th-century operas, including Schoenberg's Moses und Aron, Berg's Lulu, Bartók's Bluebeard's Castle and Janáček's From the House of the Dead.
MGG2 (E. Hintermaier, G. Walterskirchen)
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