Keyboard
(Fr.
clavier; Ger. Klaviatur, Tastatur; It. tastiera, tastatura).
A
set of levers (keys) actuating the mechanism of a musical instrument such as
the organ, harpsichord, clavichord, piano etc. The keyboard probably originated
in the Greek hydraulis, but its role in antiquity and in non-European
civilizations appears to have remained so limited that it may be considered as
characteristic of Western music. Its influence on the development of the
musical system can scarcely be overrated. The primacy of the C major scale in
tonal music, for instance, is partly due to its being played on the white keys,
and the 12-semitone chromatic scale, which is fundamental to Western music even
in some of its recent developments, derives to some extent from limitations and
requirements of the keyboard design. The arrangement of the keys in two rows,
the sharps and flats being grouped by two and three in the upper row, already
existed in the early 15th century.
1. History.
2. Layout.
3. Experimental
keyboards.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NICOLAS MEEÙS
Keyboard
1. History.
The
earliest European keyboards were simple contrivances, played with the hands
rather than the fingers. Praetorius (2/1619) and others after him stated that
some primitive organs were played with the fists, the wrists or even the knees,
but there is little confirmation of this in medieval documents. The spacing
between the organ keys remained that which separated the pipes, sometimes over
10 cm, until an abridgment mechanism was invented. Up to the 13th century the
keyboards were usually diatonic except for the inclusion of B
. They often showed a C as first
key. This seems surprising, considering that the musical system was then based
on Guido’s gamut, the lowest note of which was G (Gamma ut). But
the solmization system represented no more than a series of intervals, the
theoretical compass of which had to be reduced, by transposition of some of the
melodies, when played on an instrument of fixed sounds as an accompaniment to
voices. The addition of the B to the early diatonic keyboard was not intended
merely for the playing of melodies including that note, but also permitted
transpositions by which the Gamma ut, for instance, could be played on
the apparent c key. These transpositions compressed the total compass of
plainchant to less than two octaves, and, so long as keyboards were used only
for the playing of plainchant melodies, no wider range was needed, nor any
chromatic degree other than the B. The medieval practice of transposition must have
caused some difficulties in using the same notation for both vocal and keyboard
music, since a given note on the staff may have been played at different places
on the keyboard; and in fact it seems that the medieval keyboard repertory
usually remained unnotated. For theoretical discussions, a special alphabetical
notation was often preferred to the Guidonian terminology; the notation, which
has since been dubbed ‘organ notation’, consisted in attributing the letters A
to G to the modern C major scale.
By
the beginning of the 14th century, however, the development of polyphony had
caused a widening of keyboard compass and the progressive addition of chromatic
keys. Johannes de Muris (first half of the 14th century) mentioned keys for f
and g, and Jacques de Liège (c1330)
wrote that on the organ ‘the tone is almost everywhere divided into two
semitones’. The late 14th-century organ of Norrlanda in the Statens Historiska
Museum in Stockholm still possesses its manual keyboard covering one octave and
a 6th, from c to a', fully chromatic, and a pedal keyboard of
eight keys, probably from C to B with B. The chromatic keys are placed at a
higher level and are differently coloured than the diatonic ones, with the
exception of the b and B, which are ranged among the diatonic ones, as shown
in fig.1 (for an illustration of the complete instrument
see Organ, fig.30). The Robertsbridge
Codex (c1320), the earliest surviving keyboard music, testifies to the
advanced level of keyboard playing sometimes reached in the 14th century; the
rapid and flexible melodies, together with a few three-part chords, imply a
highly developed finger technique. The range covered is two octaves and a 3rd,
from c to e'' (fully chromatic above f). The addition of
chromatic keys to the late medieval keyboards may not at first have been
intended to permit transpositions other than those involving only one flat in
the key signature; it seems that the added chromatic degrees may have been used
primarily to gain a certain number of perfect or virtually perfect 3rds in
polyphony, and that this function was underlined by their being placed at a
different level. The chromatic degrees were in fact sometimes tuned as pure or
nearly pure 3rds to some of the diatonic ones, thus foreshadowing the mean-tone
temperaments of the Renaissance (see Temperaments and Pythagorean
intonation).
Before
the second half of the 15th century the lowest part of keyboard compositions
was often based on plainchant, or written in plainchant style. Owing to the
limited number of transpositions then performed, there was no need for
chromatic degrees other than the B in the bass of the keyboard. This explains why pedal
or bass manual keyboards remained diatonic up to a late date. As late as the
17th century, even manual keyboards sometimes lacked the first chromatic
degrees when they were provided with a Short octave (sometimes some of the
missing chromatic notes were supplied in a short octave keyboard by dividing
the lowest raised keys; see Broken octave (i)). In the first half of the
15th century keyboards often began at F or B. The B
keyboard was only a slight extension of the medieval c one. The
significance of the F keyboard is more complex. The following hypothesis
provides a possible explanation: the apparent c key had sometimes been
used to play the Gamma ut; when solmization names were given to the
keys, it may have seemed more convenient to call Gamma ut the c
key (this was feasible at a time when the pattern of raised keys was not yet
complete). One note, F fa ut, was then added below the Gamma ut.
The F keyboard would thus have been, in effect, a variant of the B
one, producing virtually the same pitches. Later in the 15th century, however,
some B keyboards were enlarged down to F, so that two types of F
keyboards may then have been in existence, about a 4th apart in pitch. This
difference of pitch, the origin of which could be traced in the medieval
practice of transposition with only one flat, survived for almost two
centuries. As late as the 17th century keyboards a 4th apart were sometimes
combined in a single instrument, a practice exemplified by the Ruckers
transposing harpsichord (see Harpsichord, §3(i) and Transposing
keyboard).
The
most common keyboard compass in the second half of the 15th century and the
first half of the 16th century was from F to a'', often without F or G. In Italy, upper limits of c'''
or even f''' were common. The instruments reaching f''' were
perhaps made at a lower pitch standard. The low limit was extended to C,
often with short octave, in the 16th century. From then, the compass of string
keyboard instruments increased more rapidly than that of the organ, as the
latter had a pedal and octave stops that made a wide compass less necessary.
However, organs with a ‘long compass’ keyboard, extending below C, were
common in countries which had a tradition of single-manual organs, e.g. England
and Italy from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Harpsichords reached five
octaves, usually from F' to f''', about 1700. Pianos attained six
octaves, often from F' to f'''', by 1800 and seven octaves, from A''
to a'''', by 1900. Pianos now usually cover seven octaves and a 3rd from
A'' to c''''' and some reach eight octaves. Modern organ
keyboards rarely cover more than five octaves.
In
the 18th and 19th centuries keyboard instruments gained a leading position in
European musical practice. This led to attempts to provide all types of
instrument with a keyboard mechanism. The most successful of these attempts
were the harmonium and the celesta, and very many of the electric and
electronic instruments produced in enormous numbers since the 1930s are
controlled by means of a keyboard (see Electronic instruments); but keyboard harps,
keyboard guitars or the numerous bowed keyboard instruments (see Sostenente
piano) have
remained mere curiosities. The keys of the hurdy-gurdy often have been given an
arrangement similar to that of the ordinary keyboard. The treble keyboard of
the accordion is often fitted with piano-style keys; the bass usually has a
button keyboard. Carillons are often equipped with a ‘baton’ keyboard (see
Carillon, §1, esp. fig.1). Attempts to give certain wind
instruments a keyboard fingering through a rearrangement of the keys or valves
generally met with little success.
Organs
with more than one keyboard have been built at least since the 15th century,
allowing contrasts either of compass, pitch or timbre. Transposition on a
single manual might also be facilitated by a shifting keyboard (see Transposing
keyboard).
The advent of electric and electronic technology has made possible several
adaptations of these devices. Electronic organs and synthesizers frequently
have keyboards that can be split at a fixed point or in some cases at various
points, into parts sounding different timbres. Transposition can be achieved by
electric or electronic switching.
Whether
a keyboard is sensitive to finger velocity or pressure depends on the
associated mechanism. Organ and harpsichord mechanisms are almost insensitive;
pneumatic and electric tractions in the organ often eliminate whatever limited
sensitivity the mechanism might have had otherwise. Pianos are
velocity-sensitive; clavichords are sensitive to both velocity and pressure,
even after the key has been depressed (see Bebung). The earliest electric and
electronic keyboards acted as mere on/off switches, but later instruments have
been made pressure-sensitive or velocity-sensitive. In addition, while the
sensitivity of mechanical keyboards mainly affected the dynamics of the sound
produced, electronic technology allows any parameter to be controlled by
pressure or velocity variations.
Keyboard
2. Layout.
Both
for playing comfort and aesthetic appearance, it is desirable to have all
natural key heads of equal width; each head should thus have one-seventh of the
octave span. At the same time, it would seem desirable that the natural key
tails (i.e. the parts of the natural keys between the sharps) and the sharps
all be of equal width, but this is incompatible with the first requirement. Each
octave may be considered as divided into two sections separated by straight
lines between B and C and between E and F. The section from C to E, which
includes three heads and five tails and sharps, should thus also ideally
comprise three-sevenths and five-twelfths of an octave; and the section from F
to B, which includes four heads and seven tails and sharps, should comprise
four-sevenths and, at the same time, seven-twelfths of an octave. Modern
keyboards offer a sophisticated solution: the keys look equal in width, but
actually present minute discrepancies. In former times the discrepancies were
more visible. Arnaut de Zwolle (c1440) avoided the problem by making a
step in the line between the E and F keys (see Harpsichord, fig.2).
Italian keyboards often showed a relatively wide key tail for D, while the
instruments belonging to the Flemish tradition had wider tails for E and F and
for B and C.
Wide
keys, as in the early keyboards, suit simple and slow melodies, but make the
playing of more than one part in each hand difficult. Narrow keys permit more
velocity and an easier playing of chords, but require more precision on the
part of the player. In order to account for possible discrepancies in the key
widths, it is usual to measure keyboards in terms of the octave span (seven
naturals) or the three-octave span (21 naturals). The main source of
information on the measurement of medieval keyboards is Praetorius’s Syntagma
musicum (2/1619), which is perhaps less reliable than is often thought.
Praetorius mentioned keys about 8 cm wide for the Halberstadt organ of 1361
(see fig.2). 15th-century octave spans, however,
seem closer to about 18 cm. In the 16th and 17th centuries an octave span of
about 16.7 cm was common, which is surprisingly close to the modern span of
16.5 cm. Narrower keys were often made in the 18th century, with octave spans
of about 16 cm or sometimes even 15.5 cm. The shape of the keys varied during
the Middle Ages. Some were spade-shaped, as in the Halberstadt keyboards
depicted by Praetorius. Others, particularly in portative organs, were
T-shaped, somewhat like the keys of the hurdy-gurdy. These forms were
superseded by rectangular plates in the 15th century, when the keys were often
so stubby as to be almost square, and the surface slightly convex (for
illustration see Portative). The natural heads remained quite
short, about 3.5 cm, up to the 18th century. Modern piano key heads are 5 cm,
the tails and sharps 10 cm long. Short keys are particularly needed in
instruments with more than one keyboard, where they facilitate shifting from
one keyboard to the other. Longer keys seem preferable for playing music with
many sharps or flats. The depth of touch, the height of the sharps above the
naturals and, to some extent, all key measurements, depend heavily on the hand
position and the finger technique used, which in turn are dependent on the type
of mechanism actuated by the keys. Pianos, which call for more muscular force
than harpsichords or organs, have a deeper touch. In some modern electronic
instruments, the ‘keyboard’ is but a continuous touch- or pressure-sensitive
strip on which the outline of keys are traced (i.e. with no moving parts).
The
colour of the keys is a matter of taste and usage, the only requirement being
that the pattern of lower and raised keys be underlined by contrasting colours.
In the past the naturals were often white and the sharps black, as they are
now, but in the 17th and 18th centuries these colours were often reversed.
Italian makers generally used brown boxwood naturals with black sharps, and
tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl, or rare precious woods of various colours have
also been employed.
Keyboard
3. Experimental keyboards.
The
‘sequential keyboard’, invented by William A.B. Lunn under the name of Arthur
Wallbridge in 1843, aimed at reducing the supremacy of the C major scale. Each
octave included six lower keys, for C, D, F, G, A and B, and six raised ones, for C, D, E, F, G and A. A similar arrangement was advocated by the
Chroma-Verein des Gleichstufigen Tonsystems in 1875–7. Paul von Janko’s
keyboard (1887–8) is a later application of the same principle. As shown in fig.3 the two rows of keys were triplicated, providing a total
of six rows, each slightly higher than the other and each including six keys in
the octave. This arrangement permitted the same fingering in all tonalities.
Jozef Wieniawski designed a piano with reversed keyboards, patented by E.J.
Mangeot in 1876, which was actually made of two superposed pianos, one with the
treble at the right as usual and the other with the treble at the left. The
purpose was to permit the same fingering for the same passages in both hands.
This arrangement is reminiscent of some medieval representations of keyboard
instruments where, for reasons that remain unclear, the treble is shown at the
left. In 1907 F. Clutsam patented a keyboard with keys arranged in the shape of
a fan according to a principle already conceived by Staufer and Heidinger in
1824 and supposed to facilitate playing in the extreme bass and treble. Another
important group of experiments concerns the Enharmonic keyboard. The fact that the majority
of the keyboard repertory has been written for the standard keyboard militates
against the success of experiments with its design. For further discussion of
unusual keyboards, see Microtonal instruments.
Keyboard
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (‘Klavier’; F.W.
Riedel)
PraetoriusSM, ii
G. Le Cerf
and E.-R. Labande: Instruments de musique du XVe siècle: les
traités d’Henri-Arnaut de Zwolle et de divers anonymes (Ms. B. N. latin 7295) (Paris, 1932/R)
F. Ernst: Der Flügel
Johann Sebastian Bachs: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Instrumentenbaues im 18.
Jahrhundert (Frankfurt, 1955)
K. Bormann: Die gotische
Orgel zu Halberstadt (Berlin, 1968)
J.C. Schuman: ‘“Reversed” Portatives and Positives in Early Art’, GSJ, xxiv (1971), 16–21
E.M. Ripin: ‘The Norrlanda Organ and the Ghent Altarpiece’,
Festschrift to Ernst Emsheimer,
ed. G. Hilleström (Stockholm, 1974),
193–6, 286–8
N. Meeùs: ‘Some Hypotheses for the History of Organ-Pitch before Schlick’, Organ Yearbook, vi
(1975), 42–52
C. Page: ‘The Earliest English Keyboard: New Evidence from Boethius’ De
musica’, EMc, vii (1979), 308–14
J.H. van der
Meer: ‘Der G-orientierte Fünfoktavenumfang bei
Saitenklavieren’, Zur
Entwicklung der Tasteninstrumente in der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts:
Blankenburg, Harz, 1985, 7–13
N Meeùs: ‘The Origin of the Chromatic Keyboard Layout’, FoMHRI Quarterly, no.46 (1987), 43–6
For further bibliography see Clavichord; Harpsichord; Organ; and Pianoforte.
