Taiwan.

Island off the east coast of mainland China, since 1949 comprising the Republic of China; it is separated from Fujian province, China, by the 150 km-wide Taiwan Strait. The island’s area is about 36,000 km², and its population (1997) is c21 million.

HSU TSANG-HOUEI (with LU YU-HSIU) (1, 2), LÜ CHUIKUAN (with LU YU-HSIU) (3), HAN KUO-HUANG (4), JOANNA C. LEE (5)

Taiwan

1. Introduction.

The population of Taiwan includes approximately 400,000 Austronesian aborigines and 20·6 million Han Chinese: 14 million Holo (Fulao or Hokkien) from Fujian province, 4 million Hakka from Guangdong province and 2,600,000 Mandarin-speaking Chinese. The Austronesian people originated in south China, migrating to Taiwan and South-east Asia around the 9th century bce (around the 3rd century bce according to some scholars). The Han Chinese people are descendants of original immigrants from China, whose mass immigration to Taiwan began in the 17th century. The most recent increase to Taiwan’s population is due to the predominantly Mandarin-speaking adherents of the Nationalist party, who came to Taiwan from all parts of China in the late 1940s.

Since the 17th century Taiwan has been a colony of many nations, and its history can be divided into several phases: the Dutch-Spanish period (1624–61), the Ming period from Prince Zheng Chenggong (the last general of the Ming Dynasty) (1661–83), the Qing period (1683–1895), the period of Japanese occupation (1895–1945) and the years of Chinese Nationalist government (1945–87). Taiwan abandoned martial law in 1987 and held its first democratic elections in 1991.

Apart from some fine studies of tribal music by Japanese scholars during the Japanese period, comprehensive studies of musical traditions by indigenous scholars did not begin until the 1960s, with the seminal ‘Folksong collection movement’ initiated by Shi Weiliang and Hsu Tsang-houei. The academic study of ethnomusicology started in the early 1980s and has been a major subject in graduate institutes of music since then. Many researchers of the new generation acquired their advanced degrees domestically from the National Taiwan Normal University and the Chinese Culture University or abroad in Europe and the USA. Major organizations, of which Hsu Tsang-houei was a founding member, include the International Conference on Chinese Ethnomusicology (held every other year in Taipei since 1987) and the International Conference of the Asia-Pacific Society for Ethnomusicology (held annually since 1993).

Import libraries and sound archives are located at the Music Department of the National Taiwan Normal University, the National Insitute of the Arts, and the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica. Active centres and foundations include the Chinese Folk Arts Foundation (Zhongua minsu yishu jijinhui), the National Centre of Traditional Arts (Guoli chuantong yishu zhongxin) and the National Center for Traditional Music (Guoli minzu yinyue zhongxin). Centres for the study of minority musics are the Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines and the Foundation for Music Culture and Education of Taiwan Aborigines (Yuanzhumin yinyue wenjiao jijinhui). The journals Minsu quyi and Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology Academia Sinica (Zhongyang yanjiuyuan minzuxue yanjiusuo jikan) and the annual Zhonghua minsu yishu niankan publish music research.

Taiwan

2. Aboriginal music.

The earliest inhabitants of Taiwan can be divided into two groups, consisting of ten plains (pingpu) tribes and nine mountain (gaoshan) tribes. The plains peoples (Ketagalan, Luilang, Kavalan, Taokas, Pazeh, Papora, Babuza, Hoanya, Siraya and Thao) live along the west coast, on the plains and around the mountains. They have been assimilated into Han Chinese society for over 300 years and can hardly be distinguished from the Han Chinese people today. The mountain peoples (Atayal (Tayal), Saisiat, Bunun, Tsou, Rukai, Paiwan, Puyuma, Ami and Yami) live scattered in the high mountains along the east coast and in the Lanyu Islet (fig.1). Although they have long had some contact with the Han Chinese people, their traditional culture was retained until the end of World War II. Since the mid-20th century many groups have been converted to Christianity, and in recent years modern popular culture has also affected their traditions.

(i) Documentary accounts and research.

There are very few documents describing music in Taiwan before the beginning of the Dutch-Spanish period in 1624, though simple records can be found in local gazetteers. In Shen Ying's ‘Linhai shuitu yiwuzhi’ (‘Record of the environment in the coastal area’) from the Three Kingdoms era (220–65), included in the ‘Dong yi’ (‘Eastern barbarians’) section of the encyclopedia Taiping yulan, there is a description of the music of the eastern barbarians: ‘For a gathering, a big hollow trunk, ten zhang [c23 m] or longer, is set in the middle of the garden. It is struck with big pestles. The drum-like sound can be heard from four or five miles away. People go for the gathering when they hear the sound’. Although historians are not sure whether the ‘eastern barbarians’ were the aborigines of Taiwan, similar wooden drums have been found during fieldwork on aboriginal music.

The Sui shu (History of the Sui dynasty, 636) mentions musical activities in the country of Liuqiu, which scholars believe denotes the islands of Okinawa, Taiwan and the Pescadores archipelago: ‘One shallow wood-block with two beaks enabling them to drink wine together … They chant and stamp. One sings and the others respond; the music is melancholy. Men, holding the arms of women, swing their arms and dance’. Such scenes of singing and dancing can still be observed in the great festivals of the aborigines of Taiwan.

Taiwan was first included in world maps in the 17th century; the Chinese name ‘Taiwan’ and the Portuguese name ‘Formosa’ were in common use. The Dongfan ji by Chen Di (1603) is a work in which for the first time the author personally observed and documented instruments and musical activities among the indigenous groups of Taiwan. Other important pre-modern documents include Yu Yonghe's Pihai jiyou (1697), Huang Shujing's Taihai shicha lu (1736) and Zhou Xi's Zhanghua xianzhi (1835). The 1736 treatise has the most detailed description of the vocal and instrumental music of the aborigines. In the Japanese period, the Linji Taiwan kyukan chosakai (Organization for the temporary investigation of old customs in Taiwan) produced an eight-volume series from 1913 to 1921. Japanese scholars, starting with Tanabe Hisao and, later, Kurosawa Takatomo, did extensive research on tribal music, including recordings and transcriptions. Systematic study by Taiwanese scholars did not begin until the 1960s, when aboriginal music was a significant aspect of the ‘Folksong collection movement’ led by Shi Weiliang and Hsu Tsang-houei. Individual work was also conducted by Lü Bing-chuan and Loh I-To. As ethnomusicological training has advanced in recent years, aboriginal music is now a major focus of study.

(ii) Musical practice.

(a) Vocal music.

Most aboriginal music in Taiwan is vocal; instrumental music plays a secondary role. The content of sung texts shows a close relationship with folk culture. The formats of vocal traditions range from simple to complex styles: monophony (recitative, melody-singing, call-and-response between individuals or between solo and group), polyphony (organum, canon, singing with drone bass, free counterpoint), harmony (with both natural chords using major triads and consonant harmony using both major and minor triads) and heterophony.

The act of singing is inseparable from the daily life of the aboriginal people. It is a part of religious activity, weddings and funerals; it tells myths and legends; it encourages the worker; it provides entertainment for playing and dancing; it is used to pray for rain, expel sickness or make contact with spirits; it expresses the feelings and ethics of the people; it maintains family harmony and tribal solidarity. Vocal music has an important function and meaning in the transmission of culture, as oral transmission is used instead of written records. The special usage and meanings of vocal music differ from tribe to tribe, as outlined below.

Atayal (Tayal). In wedding ceremonies, when a bride arrives at her new husband’s village, a group of local women sings a welcome song. Two women sing during millet-husking. Both songs are two-voice canons.

Saisiat. The most important ceremony among the Saisiat is the Pas-taai (dwarfs' ceremony), which takes place over five consecutive days. The first day is spent welcoming the spirits of the dwarfs, the second through fourth days are used to entertain them, and the last day is spent sending the spirits off. Singing dominates the ceremony, every part of which has its own special songs (ex.1).

Bunun. The celebrated Pasi-but-but (millet harvest prayer song) was demonstrated by Kurosawa Takatomo to ethnomusicologists from all over the world at the International Folk Music Council held in Paris in 1953. This song consists of male singing in one to seven parts. Parallel 4ths, parallel 5ths and triads are often sung. The upper part rises chromatically, and the lower parts follow until they form a consonant chord in the highest range. If the last chord is harmonious (a natural chord or a perfect 5th), this is thought to predict an abundant millet harvest for the year (fig.2).

Tsou. After the harvest ceremony every year, the Mayasvi (war god) ceremony is held to welcome and then send off the spirit. Everyone sings and dances in triple metre, which is found only in this tribe. Each part of the ceremony has special two-part songs for male chorus, in 3rds, 5ths or 6ths.

Paiwan and Rukai. For the Paiwan harvest festival, polyphonic group singing with a drone bass is popular. The Paiwan also sing and dance at wedding ceremonies: the bride, a shaman (or shamans) with family members, and attendants sing their own vocal parts, resulting in an interesting heterophony. In addition, some of their vocal parts seem to employ the same tonal system (ex.2) used in Okinawa or Bali. Whether it is related to the ‘black current’ (kuroshio) cultural circle suggested by the Japanese anthropologist Shikano Takeo has yet to be investigated. The singing and dancing styles of the Paiwan have influenced its smaller neighbour, the Rukai.

Puyuma. Narratives are sung for headhunting, shamanistic ceremonies and adolescence rites. Their sung poetic texts, in which nonsense syllables play a complex part, make creative use of rhymes and refrains. Puyuma folksongs are influenced by those of the Ami people.

Ami. The most celebrated music of the Ami involves group singing and dancing for the harvest ceremony. Solo and response alternate, with strong rhythm and distinctive melody (ex.3). In addition, the Ami people in Taidong have special entertainment songs, in which two or three mixed voices sing in free counterpoint.

Yami. The Yami perform distinctive recitative-like songs (ex.4 ..\Frames/F922869.html) using a narrow range and declamatory parlando style. Women dance and recite for the men, whereas work songs are sung by men only. Of their two animistic ceremonies, also for men only, one is held for the first sailing of newly constructed boats in order to drive away any bad spirits, while the other is held before fishing in order to ensure a good catch. In the Mikariyag ceremony for the completion of a work-house, people sing heterophonically all night.

(b) Instrumental music.

All of the aboriginal peoples of Taiwan except the Yami play instruments as well as performing vocal music.

Idiophones. The stamping pestle and the jew's harp are the most common instruments; other idiophones include a few gongs and rattles. Although accounts of gongs occur from the Qing dynasty, the instruments have disappeared since the early 20th century.

The stamping pestle (fig.3) is played by the Thao and Bunun peoples. Eight to ten different sizes of pestle are used as a group, usually tuned to a pentatonic scale; two to three big bamboo tubes, stroked against a stone-plate on the earth, are played together with the pestles. The music from these instruments is played as prelude or interlude between the unison singing of eight to ten females for a festival or welcoming the guests.

The jew's harp, called huang in ancient China, is played by all aboriginal groups except the Yami. The frame is made of bamboo, into which are inserted one to five (sometimes as many as seven) metal tongues (fig.4). These are vibrated by pulling the thread that is fixed on one side of the tongue. The Atayal tribe uses the jew’s harp most frequently to accompany dancing, play melodies or replace verbal communication.

Xylophones of wood or bamboo may come from Indonesia or the Philippines. In the past, only the Ami used them, and they are very rarely seen today. The wooden drum is hollow in the middle and played with wooden sticks. Although it may be called a drum, it is merely a large wooden box or bowl without membrane. It also serves as a loom or mortar for husking millet and is still used in this way by the Atayal people.

Membranophones. Although it has been documented that plains tribes, as well as the Ami and the Puyuma, have played drums, which are believed to have originated from the Han Chinese, the aborigines do not presently use any drums in their traditional music.

Chordophones. The five-string zither is played only by the Bunun people. The strings are fixed in a wooden plate and can be tuned e.g. E, F, G, A, C. The musical bow, now used for entertainment, is common to all the aborigines and is used most frequently by the Bunun.

Aerophones. Transverse, end-blown and nose flutes, all made of bamboo, are native aboriginal instruments and are very similar to other flutes in South-east Asia (fig.5). End-blown flutes have two to eight finger-holes, five being most common. In the past, they were used in headhunting ceremonies and in the ceremony held after hunting wild animals. People now play the end-blown flute for entertainment and for tribal gatherings. The Paiwan play it most frequently.

The nose flute, which is common throughout the Austronesian area, especially in the Philippines, may have single or double pipes. All groups except the Yami formerly used it, but now it is mainly used by the Paiwan. When two pipes are played together, the following combinations are possible: one pipe with holes plays the melody while the other without holes plays the drone; two pipes with the same number of holes play the same melody; or two pipes with different numbers of holes play in polyphony. Only the chief and the higher-ranking members of the tribes are allowed to play end-blown or nose flutes for ceremonies.

Taiwan

3. Han Chinese traditional music.

Han Chinese traditional music in Taiwan is performed mainly by Holo (Fulao) and Hakka people, descendants of migrants from south-east China. According to research on the widespread Daoist religion in Taiwan, beiguan music in religious celebrations and Daoist ritual was popular on the island not later than the beginning of the 18th century. Nowadays Han Chinese traditional music can be heard primarily in the western plain of the central mountains and in some hilly areas.

(i) Genres.

The performance of traditional music may take the form of singing, pure instrumental music, theatre, dance and narrative. There are four main genres in practice: ritual music, nanguan, beiguan and other vocal music. The influence of nanguan and beiguan on the vocal and instrumental music of other genres respectively is profound.

(a) Ritual music.

This refers to Buddhist, Daoist and shamanistic rites. There are two kinds of Buddhist music: temple and folk music; both consist mainly of chanting and singing. Temple music is used primarily for morning and evening services and for celebrating gods' festival days, led by a monk or a nun. Folk Buddhist music is used in funeral ceremonies. Chanting of texts, accompanied by percussion, has a similar tradition in both temple and in folk styles, but the melodic systems are different.

Daoist music is divided into two sects: zhengyi and lingbao. The zhengyi sect performs for the worship of the gods and for exorcisms. The music for the former is elegant; song texts like Buxu (ex.5), Sanhua and Santuwukusong can be found in descriptions of ceremonies in the Wei, Jin and Northern-Southern dynasties (3rd–6th centuries). The musical style of exorcisms is similar to folksong, with colloquial texts and simple forms. The lingbao sect performs for the worship of the gods (fig.6) and for funerals. Musically, its style is solemn. Again, song texts like Buxu (ex.6), Sanqingyue, Sanqisong and Miluofan can be found in accounts of ceremonies in the Wei, Jin, Northern-Southern, Tang and Song dynasties. Shamanistic music has a similar style to the exorcistic music of the zhengyi sect.

All of the three rites use various styles of instrumental music, the repertory of which derives from the guchui and the sizhu ensembles of beiguan.

In addition, a ritual performed on the 28th September every year at the Confucian temple in Tainan perpetuates the Confucian ceremony that has been constantly re-interpreted throughout imperial and modern times. As some of the instruments from the large ensemble have fallen out of use, a secular sizhu ensemble genre called shisanyin has been introduced, itself a continuous tradition much valued by scholars.

(b) Nanguan.

This is mainly a vocal repertory accompanied by instruments; many vocal melodies in other genres derive from nanguan. It may be divided into ‘authentic’ nanguan and nanguan-derived forms. The ‘authentic’ nanguan, performed while seated, includes three genres: zhi, qu and pu. Zhi, the most exalted form, is instrumental music with texts that are not for singing, but rather to help memorize the instrumental melodies. Qu is vocal music accompanied by a small ensemble, in which the singer also plays the clappers. The contents of the song texts originated in libretti from the Yuan or the Ming dynasty. However, the meaning of the song texts and their musical expression are hardly related; the function of the texts is solely to introduce the melody. Pu, consisting of suites for instrumental ensemble, uses a wider pitch range, more complex instrumental techniques and a livelier style.

Nanguan-derived forms, including geguan (or pinguan), taiping ge, chegu and the theatres of nanguan and jiaojia (gaojia), adopt parts of the qu core repertory of nanguan with differences in performance methods, instruments and instrumentation.

(c) Beiguan.

Beiguan music comprises the guchui (‘drumming-and-blowing’) ensemble, the sizhu (‘silk-and-bamboo’) ensemble, lyrics (xiqu) and theatre music (xiqu, written with different characters).

Guchui music employs qupai (‘labelled melodies’) and may be subdivided into suites and single pieces. The single pieces embody ancient style (gulu) and new style (xinlu). The qupai melodies in ancient style originated from the ‘northern songs’ (beiqu) of the Yuan dynasty and the ‘southern songs’ (nanqu) of the Ming dynasty. Although they all have texts, they are not now sung but played by two shawms plus drums and other percussion. This music is used for preludes and at transitional points in ceremonies, weddings and funerals.

The sizhu ensemble, also called xianpu, uses three kinds of instruments: bamboo wind, plucked strings and bowed strings. While the instruments and instrumentation vary between regions and ensembles, the kezixian (coconut-shell fiddle) is always the leading instrument (fig.7).

The vocal music of beiguan is called xiqu (lyrics, literally ‘fine song’) owing to the subtlety of its singing technique. It comprises suites and single pieces. A singer sings and plays the clapper, accompanied by the sizhu ensemble.

The theatre of beiguan (also called luantan when performed by professionals) includes three genres: banxian, ancient style (guluxi) and new style (xinluxi). The greater part of the sung melodies of the banxian dramatic repertory originated from the ‘northern songs’ of Kunqu. The ancient-style theatre was imported earlier than the new-style one. Both are accompanied by the sizhu ensemble, with gongs and drums added for interludes. The ancient style uses the coconut-shell fiddle, whereas the new style uses the diaoguizi (jinghu, two-string bowed fiddle) to lead the ensemble. For singing, the ancient-style theatre uses mainly the head voice, giving the music strength and dynamism (ex.7). The new-style theatre consists of xipi and erhuang melodic structures, similar to those of Beijing opera.

The repertory and the ensemble forms of beiguan are the model for nearly all traditional instrumental music in Taiwan. Typical examples are the music of marionette (kuilei) and glove-puppet (budai) theatres in northern Taiwan, in which both instrumental and vocal melodies adopt beiguan music. Independent instrumental ensembles such as the Hakka bayin or the Minnan (Holo) shiyin or shisanyin also employ beiguan msuic, with only minor differences in instrumentation and context. In general, bayin is performed for Hakka festivals, shiyin for Holo funerals and shisanyin for the rituals for Confucius and the god of examinations.

(d) Other vocal music.

Other genres of Han Chinese singing include vocal music from other theatres, narrative singing and folksongs in the Holo and Hakka languages. Although many of these songs were collected during fieldwork in the 1960s and 1970s, they have virtually been destroyed by more recent economic changes. One genre in which these songs can still be found is Gezai theatre (Koa-a-hi), which originated in Taiwan itself at the beginning of the 20th century. Its structure is flexible. The accompanying guchui and sizhu ensembles are similar to the ensembles of the beiguan theatre.

(ii) Instruments.

4. Western art music.

(i) Before 1945.

Although both Dutch Calvinist and Spanish Catholic missionaries taught Christian hymns to local people, primarily aborigines, in Taiwan in the 17th century, it was not until the mid-19th century, when Taiwan was reopened to the West, that Christianity and its music returned in full force, this time to take root permanently. Presbyterian missionaries from Britain and Canada spread Christianity and its music to the people, with lasting impact. British missionaries arrived in 1860 and worked primarily in the south, whereas Canadians arrived in 1872, working in the north.

In 1895, Taiwan was ceded to Japan by the Chinese Qing dynasty after the Sino-Japanese War. A formal education system based on Western models was established by the Japanese. Music was an integral part of this system, especially in the normal schools for training teachers; Western and Westernized Japanese songs were the core of these courses. The best students were encouraged to study music formally in Japan, even being offered scholarships. Students from Christian schools also went to Japan to further their studies of music.

It was at this time that the first group of native Taiwanese art musicians arose. Among these pioneers were the composers Jiang Wenye, Chen Sizhi (Chen Szu-chih, Chen Su-ti, 1911–92), Lu Quansheng (Lu Ch’uan-sheng, b 1916) and Guo Zhiyuan. Jiang Wenye is the best known of these musicians internationally. While living in Japan he won several awards for his compositions, including a special prize for his orchestral piece Formosan Dance op.1 in the art and literature category of the 1936 Berlin Opera International Competition. He moved to Beijing and died there. A Jiang renaissance began in New York in 1982 and continued in Taiwan and elsewhere, and he has become venerated as the first modern Taiwanese composer. Conferences devoted to him and his works were held in Hong Kong (1990) and Taiwan (1992). Much of his style shows the influence of Debussy and Bartók, which was new and refreshing at the time. Chen Sizhi is famous for his piano pieces and Lu Quansheng for his art songs and choral work. Guo Zhiyuan, who has written with great success on native subjects, has enjoyed much attention in recent years.

(ii) Since 1945.

Like all developing countries, Taiwan faced many challenges immediately after World War II. However, by the 1990s it ranked among the developed countries, with a high per capita income, a well-educated and motivated populace, and worldwide trade and networking contacts. Along with these improvements came inner political conflicts, an identity crisis, and tensions between tradition and modernity, native and foreign, Taiwan and China etc. Inevitably, musical culture reflected and responded to these changes.

The development of art music in postwar Taiwan can be divided into the three periods of government cultural policy distinguished by Winckler (1994), namely 1945–60, 1960–75 and 1975–90.

(a) The First Period (1945–60).

Following its defeat in World War II, Japan returned Taiwan to the Nationalist government of the Republic of China. Politically authoritarian and sensitive, this was a period in which science and technology were encouraged at the expense of long-term humanistic investment. Chinese and Russian communist elements were completely banned, whereas Western culture was allowed. It was safer to approach Western culture, which was novel at the time, so modernism and cosmopolitanism became the norm in the 1950s and 60s.

While Japanese-trained Taiwanese musicians continued to work, they were joined by many mainland musicians. Among these were composers and theorists Xiao Erhua (Hsiao Erh-hua), Zhang Jinhong (Chang Chin-hung, b 1907), Li Yonggang (Lee Yung-kang, 1910–95), Kang Ou (Kang Ngou, b 1914) and Shen Bingguang (Sheng Ping-kwang, b 1921). Many of them taught in the newly established Department of Music, Taiwan Teachers' College, which became Normal University in 1955. The style of most of these composers (both Taiwanese and mainlanders) was more or less 19th-century Romanticism with Chinese melodies – in other words, pentatonic-Romanticism. All the first-generation composers after the war graduated from Normal University, among them Shi Weiliang (Shih Wei-liang, 1925–77), Liu Deyi (Liu Te-i, also called Pietro, 1929–91), Hsu Tsang-houei and Lu Yan (Lu Yen, b 1930). In 1957, the Taiwan Academy of the Arts was established. The first group of graduates included composers such as Chen Maoliang (Chen Mau-liang, 1937–97), Ma Shuilong, Shen Jintang (Shen Chin-tan, b 1940), Li Taixiang, You Changfa (Yu Ch'ang-fa, b 1942), Dai Hongxuan (Tai Hung-hsuan, 1942–94), Lai Dehe (Lai Deh-ho, b 1943) and Wen Longxin (Wen Loong-hsin, b 1944). These two groups of composers pursued their higher education in Europe and America instead of Japan. When they returned, they became the leading force in art music in Taiwan.

(b) The Second Period (1960–75).

This was a period of gradual transition, when ideological emphasis gave way to economic development. Initially, modernity and cosmopolitanism occupied the minds of most intellectuals. The setback in international relations due to the expulsion of Taiwan from the United Nations and the confrontation with Japan over the Diaoyutai fishing islands in the early 1970s sparked national sentiment and regionalism.

When Hsu Tsang-houei, one of the first graduates from Normal University, returned in 1959 after studying in Paris, the arts in Taiwan, including painting, literature and drama, were highly modernistic and cosmopolitan. Hsu's avant-garde compositions epitomized this trend and departed from the Romantic and tonally orientated tradition. He was responsible for introducing the techniques of Debussy and others to Taiwan. Such young composers as Xu Boyun and those from the Taiwan Academy of the Arts mentioned above flocked to his side.

The leading composers of this period were the two groups from the Normal University and the Taiwan Academy of Arts who had returned from study overseas. Most of these composers had begun with avant-garde approaches and had then embraced other forms, such as atonality, serialism, minimalism, unconventional playing and singing, the use of electronics and even stage movements. At the same time, they also tried to use these newly acquired techniques to express personal style and cultural heritage. However, pentatonic Romanticism was never completely abandoned, though it was sometimes modified.

Two private institutes with important music departments were established during this period: the Chinese Culture University (1962) and Soochow (Dongwu) University (1972). From 1961 Hsu Tsang-houei actively organized composers' forums to promote new music. This culminated in 1973 in a permanent organization, the Asian Composers' League (ACL) – Taiwan Headquarters. The ACL, brainchild of Hsu and several other Asian composers, hosted conferences almost yearly in various Asian cities. Hsu's involvement in local and international activities was always important; he can be called the founder of Taiwan's new music movement.

The early 1970s witnessed the awakening of an interest in native culture. The Taiwanese folksong collecting projects begun by Shi Weiliang and Hsu Tsang-houei in the mid-1960s became an inspiration for the Modern China Music Bureau and the Cloud Gate Dance Theatre, both established in 1973. The former did not survive when its founder, Shi Weiliang, died, but the latter, founded by choreographer Lin Huaimin (Lin Hwai-min), became internationally known for its high level of performance, its depiction of native experiences and the commissioning of music composed by Taiwanese composers.

(c) The Third Period (1975–90).

From the mid-1970s, with growing economic power and a rising middle class, Taiwan experienced its most dramatic political and social changes. The event that accelerated the whole return-to-native trend was the Native Literature (Xiangtu wenxue) movement of 1977–8. Native, in this case Taiwanese, subjects became the themes of writings, films, paintings and popular songs. Collecting Taiwanese folk art and antiques became fashionable. The liberalized and localized Nationalist government shifted its cultural policy and paid more attention to native subjects and local benefits. This can be most vividly seen in the establishment of the Council for Cultural Planning and Development under the Executive Yuan in 1981, the opening of the National Theatre and Concert Hall in 1987 and the construction of many local culture centres in the 1980s.

One important institute, the National Institute of the Arts, was established in 1982 to combine the traditional and modern in teaching. The music department, headed first by composer Ma Shuilong, required all composition majors to study the qin zither, an educational innovation. By this time, increasing international exchange and exposure in every aspect of cultural life had become possible. In 1988, a meeting of Taiwanese and mainland Chinese composers was arranged under the auspices of the Chinese-American composer Chou Wen-chung and the US–China Art Exchange at Columbia University in New York. Under the leadership of composer Pan Huanglong, a Taipei section of the ISCM was founded in 1989; it further advanced interaction between composers, and concerts of Taiwanese music were sponsored in New York, Paris and elsewhere.

By the 1980s and 90s none of the political taboos of the early years after the war existed. Commissions came from the government as well as the private sector. Large and small festivals were sponsored by orchestras as well as public and private agents. New compositions, often commissioned by these festivals, were performed, and many composers had their works performed overseas.

A host of composers returned to Taiwan in the 1980s. Some of the best known are Pan Huanglong (b 1945), Zeng Xingkui (Tzeng Shing-kwei, b 1946), Ke Fanglong (Co Fan-long, b 1947), Qian Nanzhang (Chien Nan-chang, b 1948), Wu Dinglian, Qian Shanhua (Chien Shan-hua, b 1954), Pan Shiji and Chen Shuxi (Chen Shu-si, b 1957). They faced two dilemmas: the search for identity amid continuing tensions and conflicts, and the rationalization of their works in the context of an ever-changing society. However, they increasingly found themselves on more solid ground when approaching modern or post-modern techniques. They employed contemporary practices such as the frequent use of percussion, they experimented with Chinese and other instruments or unusual media, including multimedia, they emphasized the inflection of pitch and timbre, and above all, they considered Asian philosophical and aesthetic concepts and literary sources, most of which their Western counterparts had borrowed from Asia; an important concern was to capture and assimilate the Asian traditional spirit and express it in a contemporary language. Few quoted directly from traditional melodies, but traditional rhythmic ideas were sometimes employed. In this sense, the return-to-native movement in new music became what Barbara Mittler (1996) has called a ‘double mirror effect’.

Taiwan

5. Popular music.

As a Japanese colony and an island separate from China, Taiwan's commercial popular culture in the first half of the 20th century was mostly imported from Japan, although some films (and film music) from Shanghai were also distributed. Taiwan's own popular music culture came into being after 1949, the result of the migration of Nationalist Chinese led out of mainland China by Chiang Kai-shek. However, a significant portion of popular music in Taiwan in the 1950s was imported from Hong Kong, since the majority of Shanghai musicians had settled there. Shidaiqu (contemporary song) became the general term referring to such music in the 1960s.

1960s Shidaiqu was highly stylized: strophic in structure, with American dance-band instrumentation of strings, keyboard, brass and percussion, but with Chinese lyrical melodic character and vocal delivery. The leading Taiwanese composer of the genre was Liu Jiachang, who was also an actor and film director. Although some songs were original compositions, Taiwanese popular music sources included popularized versions of folksongs and cover versions of Japanese popular songs. Lyrics are exclusively about love, and revenues for the industry were generated by record sales and singers' appearances in nightclubs, on television and on radio.

The most celebrated Taiwanese singer in the 1970s and 80s was Deng Lijun (Teresa Teng). Deng was among the first Taiwanese singers who made an impressive career along the Pacific Rim (including Japan). Her growing popularity in the late 1970s coincided with the open-door policy of the People's Republic of China. Although cassette tapes of Deng's songs were officially banned in the People's Republic of China until the 1980s, her songs made an impact on musical tastes of mainland Chinese from 1978. After her death, Beijing's rock musicians paid their tribute by recording her songs.

Luo Dayou (Lo Ta-yu) came to prominence in the late 1970s. Luo is a pioneer and an all-round composer, lyricist and performer (piano and voice), whose career, mainly based in Hong Kong and Taiwan, has also expanded into mainland China since the late 1980s. He has written some compositions using the Taiwanese dialect of Hokkien, rather than Mandarin, as a symbol of Taiwanese regionalism. His output also contains much political commentary. Hou Dejian, a contemporary of Luo, wrote one of the most important Taiwanese popular songs of the 1980s, Long de chuanren (‘Descendants of the Dragon’), which became an anthem in the 1989 Chinese democracy movement.

Campus folksongs, accompanied by acoustic guitar, were popular in the 1980s. Stemming from a search for simplicity by urban youths, the music and lyrics were original and reflective, influenced by the American folk tradition of the 1960s.

Hong Kong's Cantopop dominated Taiwan by the 1990s; singers such as Kenny Bee recorded Mandarin versions of Cantopop songs for distribution in Taiwan and China. On the other hand, Emil Chau, a Hong Kong native who developed his career in Taiwanese pop in the 1980s, became a Cantopop star from 1995 onwards. Stylistically, Hong Kong and Taiwanese popular music became indistinguishable in the 1990s.

See also Cantopop; China, §IV, 6(ii); Hong kong, §II.

Taiwan

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

general

aboriginal music

han chinese traditional music

western art music

popular music

Taiwan: Bibliography

general

Hsu Tsang-houei: Xunzhao Zhongguo yinyue de quanyuan [In search of the sources of Chinese music] (Taipei, 1968)

Loh I-To: ‘Taiwan minzu yinyue yanjiu zhi youguan cankao wenxian’ [Reference materials for the study of folk music in Taiwan], Donghai Ethnomusicological Journal [Taizhong], i (1974), 204–25

Lü Bingchuan: Lü Bingchuan yinyue lunshuji [Musical essays of Lü Bingchuan] (Taipei, 1979)

Zhonghua minsu yishu niankan [Chinese folk arts annual] (1980–)

Chinese Ethnomusicology I–III: Taipei, 1983–8

Hsu Tsang-houei: Duocai duozi de minzu yinyue (Taipei, 1984; Eng. trans., 1989, as Colourful Ethnic Music of Taiwan)

Hsu Tsang-houei: Minzu yinyue lunshugao [Ethnomusicological essays] (Taipei, 1987–99)

International Conference on Ethnomusicology IV–VI: Taipei, 1991–8

Hsu Tsang-houei: Taiwan yinyue shi chugao [History of music in Taiwan, first draft] (Taipei, 1991)

Hsu Tsang-houei and Cheng Shui-cheng: Musique de Taiwan (Paris, 1992)

Hsu Tsang-houei: Yinyue shi lunshugao [Essays on music history], 2 vols (Taipei, 1994 and 1996)

Lü Chuikuan: Taiwan chuantong yinyue [Traditional music of Taiwan] (Taipei, 1994–6)

Chen Junbin: ‘Taiwan yinyue ziliao mulu chubian’ [Preliminary catalogue of material on music on Taiwan], Yinyue yanjiu xuebao [Taipei], v (1996), 183–204

Hsu Tsang-houei: Minzu yinyue lunshugao [Ethnomusicological essays], ii (Taipei, 1999)

Recordings

Zhongguo minjian yinyue, iv: Minjian yueren yinyeuhui xuancui, i–iii [Chinese folk music, iv: Highlights from the concerts of folk musicians, i–iii], Shuping shumu cbs CF 001 to 003 (1978)

Zhongguo minsu yinyue zhuanji/A Special Album of Chinese Folk Music, rec. 1966–78, coll. Hsu Tsang-houei and others, Diyi changpianchang FM-6008–12, 6016–31, 6045, 6068–71, 6087–90 (1979–84)

Minzu yinyue xilie zhuanji/Chinese Traditional Music, Wenjianhui (Council for Cultural Planning and Development) (1992–7)

Taiwan: Bibliography

aboriginal music

Early Sources

Wei Zheng and others: Sui shu [History of the Sui dynasty] (n.p., 636), ed. Zhonghua shuju (Beijing, 1973)

Li Fang and others: Taiping yulan (n.p., 977), ed. Xinxing (Taipei, 1975)

Chen Di: ‘Dongfan ji’ [Account of the savages of the East], Minhai zengyan [Articles given to a friend living on the coast of Fujian], ed. Shen Yourong (n.p., 1603); ed. Bank of Taiwan (Taipei, 1959), 24–8

Yu Yonghe: Pihai jiyou [Journal of travels in the small sea] (n.p., 1697), ed. Bank of Taiwan (Taipei, 1959)

Chen Menglin: Zhuluo xianzhi [Zhuluo county gazetteer] (n.p., 1724), ed. Bank of Taiwan (Taipei, 1958)

Huang Shujing: Taihai shicha lu [Record of mission to Taiwan] (n.p., 1736), ed. Bank of Taiwan (Taipei, 1958)

Liu Shiqi: Fanshe caifeng tukao [An illustrated fieldwork study on the aboriginal tribes] (n.p., 1747), ed. Bank of Taiwan (Taipei, 1961)

Zhou Xi: Zhanghua xianzhi [Zhanghua county gazetteer] (n.p., 1835), ed. Bank of Taiwan (Taipei, 1962)

Modern sources

Y. Ino: ‘Taiwan doban no kayo to kouo gakki’ [Folksongs and traditional instruments of the Taiwanese aborigines], Tokyo jinruigakai zashi, xxii/252 (1907), 233–40

Y. Ino: ‘Taiwan doban no junikagetsu no shoho’ [Singing methods for the 12 months from Taiwanese aborigines], Tokyo jinruigakai zashi, xxiii/261 (1907), 111–13

Y. Ino: Banzoku chosa hokokusho [Reports of research on the aborigines], ed. Linji Taiwan kyukan chosakai (Taipei, 1913–21)

M. Ushinosuke: Taiwan banzoku shi, daiikan [Customs of the aborigines in Taiwan, vol.1] (Taipei, 1917)

H. Tanabe: ‘Taiwan ongaku ko’ [A study of music in Taiwan], Gakugei [Tokyo], xxxix/12 (1922), 48–53; xl/1 (1923), 91–5; xl/2 (1923), 55–61; xl/4 (1923), 69–75; xl/5 (1923), 49–51; xl/6 (1923), 90–94

H. Tanabe: Daiiji ongaku kiko [First musical journey] (Tokyo, 1923)

S. Suzuki: Taiwan no banzoku kenkyū [A study of the aboriginal tribes in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1932)

S. Suzuki: Taiwan banjin fuzoku shi [Record of aboriginal customs] (Taipei, 1932)

T. Takenaga: ‘Taiwan banzoku ongaku no kenkyū’ [A study of aboriginal music in Taiwan], Taiwan jiho [Taipei], no.154 (1932), 19–30

N. Ogawa and K. Asai: Gengo ni yoru Taiwan takasago zoku no densetsushu [Legends of the aborigines in Taiwan in the original language] (Taipei, 1934)

B. Sado: Taiwan genju shuzoku no genshi geijuzu [Primitive arts of the aboriginal tribes in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1944)

Qiu Yanliang: ‘Xianjieduan min'ge gongzuo de zongbaogao’ [Summary reports of work on folksong in modern times], Caoyuan [Taipei] (1967), 55–90

Shi Weiliang: ‘Taiwan shandi min'ge diaocha yanjiu baogao’ [Fieldwork report on folksongs among the mountain tribes in Taiwan], Yishu xuebao [Taipei], iii (1968), 88–110

H. Tanabe: Taiwan to Amoy: Nanyo, Taiwan, Okinawa no ongaku kikō [Taiwan and Amoy: musical journey to South-east Asia, Taiwan and Okinawa] (Tokyo, 1968)

T. Kurosawa: Taiwan takasagozoku no ongaku [Music of the mountain tribes in Taiwan] (Tokyo, 1973)

Lü Bingchuan: Shinchō bunken ni yoru Taiwan takasagozoku no ongaku [Study of the musical instruments of the Taiwan aborigines based on Qing dynasty documents] (Tokyo, 1973)

Lü Bingchuan: Taiwan Dochakuzoku no ongaku: hikaku ongakugaku teki kōsatsu [Music of the aborigines in Taiwan: a comparative study] (diss., U. of Tokyo, 1973)

Hsu Tsang-houei: Taiwan gaoshanzu minyao [Folksongs of the aborigines in Taiwan] (1976)

Hsu Tsang-houei: Taiwan shandi minyao [Folksongs of the mountain tribes in Taiwan] (1978)

Lü Bingchuan: Taiwan tuzhuzu yinyue [Music of the aborigines] (Taipei, 1982)

Ming Liguo: ‘Guanyu Taiwan yuanzhu minzu yinyue wudao wenhua tixi de diaocha yu yanjiu’ [A study of the cultural system of the music and dance of the Taiwanese aborigines], International Conference on Ethnomusicology V: Taipei 1991, 255–62

Hsu Tsang-houei: Taiwan yuanzhumin de yinyue [Music of the aborigines in Taiwan] (Nantou, 1999)

Tribal studies and singing styles

Zhang Fuxing: Suishaban no kinuuda to kayo [Stamping pestle music and songs of the plains tribe in Shuishe] (Taipei, 1922)

S. Ijijo: Ami no uta [Songs of the Ami] (Taipei, 1925)

S. Ijijo: Paiwan, Bunun, Taiyal no uta [Songs of Paiwan, Bunun and Atayal] (Taipei, 1925)

U. Nenozo: ‘Toshia jukuban no kayo’ [Folksongs of the plains tribe in Toushe], Nanpo dozoku [Taipei], i/2 (1931), 137–45

B. Sado: ‘Daishiasho no banka’ [The aboriginal tribe of Dashe village], Nanpo dozoku [Taipei], iii/1 (1934), 114–26

B. Sado: ‘Paiwan zoku no kayo ni tsuite’ [On the folksongs of the Paiwan tribe], Nanpo dozoku [Taipei], iv/2 (1936), 15–32

Lin Hengli: ‘Saixiazu ailing jige ci’ [The Pas-taai songs of the Saisiat], Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, ii (1956), 31–107

Ding Qiyuan: ‘Wulai Taiyazu yinyue’ [Music of the Atayal tribe in Wulai], Qingliuyuan shandi bowuguan (1961), 1–16

Shi Weiliang: ‘Ameizu min'ge de fenxi’ [An analysis of Ami folksongs], Yinyue xuebao, v (1967), 17–22

Liu Wunan: ‘Zuichang de luyin’ [The longest recording], Xiandai [Taipei], xv (1967), 40–41

Loh I-To: ‘Pingpuzu Alizu zhi jidian jiqi shige zhi yanjiu’ [A study of the plains tribe Arit festival and its songs], Donghai Ethnomusicological Journal [Taizhong], i (1974), 55–84

Loh I-To: Tribal Music of Taiwan: With Special Reference to the Ami and Puyuma Styles (diss., UCLA, 1982)

Lin Xinlai: Taiwan Ameizu minyao yaoci yanjiu [A study of musical text in the folksongs of the Ami tribe in Taiwan] (Taidong, 1983)

Xu Yingzhou: Lanyu zhi mei [The beauty of Lanyu] (Taipei, 1984)

Cai Lihua: Lanyu Yameizu wudao yanjiu [A study of the dance of the Yami tribe in Lanyu] (Taipei, 1985)

Lin Xinlai: Taiwan Beinanzu jiqi minyao qudiao yanjiu [A study of the Puyuma tribe and its folksong melodies] (Taidong, 1985)

Hsu Tsang-houei: ‘A Brief Transcription, Analysis and Comparative Study on Mr. Hsu Ying-Chou's “Categorisation of Yami Song”’, Chinese Ethnomusicology III: Taipei 1988, 255–70

Hsu Yingzhou: ‘Categorisation of Yami Song’, Chinese Ethnomusicology III: Taipei 1988, 271–337

Lin Qingcai: Xilayazu jiyi yinyue yanjiu [A study of the ceremonial music of the Siraya tribe] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1988)

Loh I-To: ‘Puyuma Multipart Singing Technique and Social Organization’, Chinese Ethnomusicology III: Taipei 1988, 223–45

Wu Rongshun: Bunongzu chuantong geyao yu qidao xiaomi fengshouge de yanjiu [A study of the traditional songs and the Pasi-but-but of the Bunun tribe] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1988)

Ming Liguo: ‘Xiaomi fengshouge de fawei’ [Development of the Pasi-but-but], The Conference of the Society for Ethnomusicology of China (Taipei, 1991), 79–92

Qian Shanhua and others: Paiwanzu chuantong tongyao [Traditional children's songs of the Paiwan tribe] (Taipei, 1991)

Hu Taili and Xie Junda: ‘Wufeng Saixiazu airen jige de ci yu pu’ [Text and notation of the Saisiat's Pas-taai in Wufeng], Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology: Occasional Series [Taipei], viii (1993), 1–77

Pu Zhongyong: Taiwan Zouzu minjian geyao [Folksongs of the Tsou tribe in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1993)

Instruments

T. Takenaga: ‘Taiwan banzoku gakiko’ [A study of aboriginal musical instruments], Taiwan jiho [Taipei], no.162 (1933), 16–23; no.163 (1933), 1–5; no.164 (1933), 15–22

Li Hui: ‘Ji benzi suo cang Taiwan tuzhuzu kouqin biaoben’ [Specimens of jew’s harps of the Taiwan aborigines in the National Taiwan University], Bulletin of the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology [Taipei], v (1955), 63–7

Li Hui: ‘Taiwan ji dongnanya gedi tuzhu minzu de kouqin zhi bijiao yanjiu’ [A comparative study of jew's harps among the aborigines of Formosa and East Asia], Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, i (1956), 85–140

Ling Manli: ‘Taiwan Ameizu de yueqi’ [Musical instruments of the Ami tribe in Taiwan], ibid., xi (1961), 185–220

F.J. Lenherr: ‘The Musical Instruments of the Taiwan Aborigines’, ibid., xxiii (1967), 109–28

Lü Bingchuan: ‘Taiwan tuzhuzu zhi yueqi’ [Musical instruments of the aborigines in Taiwan], Donghai Ethnomusicological Journal [Taizhong], i (1974), 85–203

Hu Taili and Nian Xiuling: ‘Paiwanzu bidi, koudi xiankuang diaocha’ [Fieldwork on the current situation of the nose flute and mouth flute of the Paiwan tribe], Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology: Occasional Series [Taipei], xi (1996), 1–79

Recordings

Taiwan bankyoku no rekodo [Record of aboriginal songs in Taiwan], coll. K. Asai, rec. 1927, Kyoto shokyoku (1944)

Azia to Eskimo [Asia and Eskimo], coll. T. Kurosawa, rec. 1943, International Archives of Folk Music VDE 30–426 (1953)

Takasagozoku no ongaku [Music of the mountain tribes], coll. T. Kurosawa, rec. 1943, Victor (Tokyo) SJL 78–9 (1974)

Taiwan genzu minzoku ‘takasagozoku’ no ongaku [Music of the aboriginal ‘mountain tribes’ in Taiwan], coll. Lü Bingchuan, Victor (Tokyo) SJ 1001–3 (1977)

Nanyo, Taiwan, Kalafuto shomizoku no ongaku [Music of the peoples of South-east Asia, Taiwan and Kuril islands], coll. H. Tanabe, rec. 1922, Toshiba EMI TW 80011 (1978)

Takasagozoku no uta [Songs of the mountain tribes], coll. F. Koizumi, Victor (Tokyo) GXC 5002 (1978)

Taiwan shanbao de yinyue/Music of the Taiwan Aborigines, coll. Hsu Tsang-houei and Lü Bingchuan, Diyi changpianchang FM-6010–11, 6029–31, 6089 (1979–84) [in series Zhongguo minsu yinyue zhuanji]

Taiwan yuanzhumin: laodong yu aiqing zhi ge [Aborigines of Taiwan: work songs and love songs], coll. Hsu Tsang-houei, rec. 1966, Arion ARN 33785 (1985)

Polyphonies vocales des aborigines de Taiwan, Maison des Cultures du Monde W 260011 (1989)

Taiwan: musique des peuples minoritaires, coll. Cheng Shui-cheng, Arion ARN 64109 (1989)

Music of the aboriginal tribes, coll. W. Laade, Jecklin Musikhaus [Music of Man Archive] JD 653–2 (1991)

Zouzu zhi ge [Songs of the Tsou tribe], coll. Xu Chongqing, Gunshi yousheng cbs CD 003 (1991)

Taiwan yuanzhumin yinyue jishi/The Music of the Aborigines on Taiwan Island, coll. Wu Rongshun, Wind Records TCD 1501 to 1508 (1992–5)

Pingpuzu yinyue jishi xilie/The Music of the Plain Aborigines on Taiwan Island, coll. Wu Rongshun, Wind Records TCD 1059 to 1514 (1998)

Taiwan: Bibliography

han chinese traditional music

Ritual music

Gao Yali: Cong Fojiao yinyue wenhuade zhuanbian lun Fojiao yinyue zai Taiwan de fazhan [On the development of Buddhist music in Taiwan through the transformation of Buddhist musical culture] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1990)

Schu-chi Lee: Die Musik in Daoistischen Zeremonien auf Taiwan (Frankfurt, 1992)

Lü Chuikuan: ‘Taiwan Daojiao yishi yu yinyue de ziliao’ [Material on Daoist ritual and music in Taiwan], Yishu xue, ix (1993), 7–38

Lü Chuikuan: Taiwan de Daojiao yishi yu yinyue [Ritual and music of Daoism in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1994)

Qiu Yiling: Taiwan beibu shijiao yinyue yanjiu [A study of folk Buddhist music in northern Taiwan] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1995)

Ma Shangyun: Kaojun yishi zhi yinyue yanjiu [A study of the music in rites for the reward to soldiers] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1996)

Hsu Juikun: La musique Taoiste à Taiwan: la troisième secte révélée par la musique liturgique (diss., U. de Paris VIII, Saint-Denis, 1998)

Chen Biyan: Morning and Evening Service: the Practice of Ritual, Music and Doctrine in the Chinese Buddhist Monastic Community (diss., U. of Chicago, 1999)

Gao Yali: Musique, rituel, et symbolisme: étude de la pratique musical dans le rituel shuilu chez les bouddhistes orthodoxes à Taiwan (diss., U. de Paris, X, Nanterre, 1999)

Nanguan and Beiguan

Zhang Zaixing: Nanyue quji [A collection of Nanguan music] (Taipei, 1962)

Lü Chuikuan: Quanzhou xianguan (nanguan) yanjiu [A study of xianguan (nanguan) music of Quanzhou] (Taipei, 1982)

N. Yeh: Nanguan Music in Taiwan: a Little Known Classical Tradition (diss., UCLA, 1985)

Lü Chuikuan: Taiwan de nanguan [Nanguan in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1986)

Lü Chuikuan: Quanzhou xianguan (nanguan) zhipu congbian [A compilation of zhi and pu of xianguan (nanguan) music of Quanzhou] (Taipei, 1987)

Li Wenzheng: Taiwan beiguan ji fulu changqiang de yanjiu [A study of the singing styles of beiguan and fulu in Taiwan] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1988)

Ping-hui Li: The Dynamics of a Musical Tradition: Contextual Adaptions in the Music of Taiwanese ‘Beiguan’ Wind and Percussion Ensemble (diss., U. of Pittsburgh, 1991)

Lin Weiyi: Taiwan beiguan Kunqiang (xiqu) zhi yanjiu [A study of the beiguan Kun-singing style (fine song) in Taiwan] (thesis, National Institute of the Arts, 1992)

Ying-fen Wang: Tune Identity and Compositional Process in Zhongbei Songs: a Semiotic Analysis of Nanguan Vocal Music (diss., U. of Pittsburgh, 1992)

Liu Meizhi: Beiguan xianpu da Baban yanjiu [A study of the enlarged Baban in the sizhu ensemble of beiguan] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1996)

Lü Chuikuan: ‘Lun nanbeiguan de yishu jiqi shehuihua’ [Art and socialization of nanguan and beiguan], Minzu yishu chuancheng yantaohui lunwenji (Taipei, 1996), 49–176

Lü Chuikuan: Chuantong yinyue jilu, beiguan juan [Compilation of traditional music, beiguan vols.] (Taipei, 1999)

Lü Chuikuan: Beiguan yinyue gailun [Introduction to beiguan music] (Zhanghua, 2000)

Other vocal-dramatic traditions

Lü Sushang: Taiwan dianying xiju shi [History of cinema and theatre in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1961)

Zhang Xuanwen: Gezai xi yinyue [Music of the Koa-a theatre] (Taizhong, 1976) [with 2 LPs]

Hsu Tsang-houei: Taiwan Fulaoxi min'ge [Holo folksongs of Taiwan] (Taipei, 1982)

Yang Zhaozhen: Taiwan Kejiaxi min'ge [Hakka folksongs of Taiwan] (Taipei, 1982)

Zhang Xuanwen: Taiwan Gezaixi yinyue [Music of the Gezai theatre in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1982)

Zheng Rongxing: Taiwan Kejia bayin zhi yanjiu: you Miaoli Chen Qingsong jiazu de minsu quyi tantouzhi [Study of Hakka bayin in Taiwan from the case of the performing arts of Chen Qingsong’s family in Miaoli] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1983)

Zhang Xuanwen: Taiwan de shuochang yinyue [Narrative singing of Taiwan] (Taizhong, 1986) [with two cassettes]

Xu Lisha: Gezaixi changqiang qudiao laiyuan fenlei yanjiu [Study of the classification of the origins of Koa-a theatre melodies] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1987)

G. Bösken: Die Taiwan-Opera Gezaixi: Folklore oder ‘Fakelore’? (diss., U. of Göttingen, 1988)

Liao-Yan Lu-fen: Form und Struktur der Gesänge im volkstümlichen Kuan-Theater auf Taiwan (Hamburg, 1989)

Qiu Kunliang [Chu Kun-liang]: Les aspects rituels du théâtre chinois (Paris, 1991)

Chen Junbin: Hengchun minyao yanjiu [A study of folksongs of Hengchun] (diss., National Institute of the Arts, 1992)

Gao Jiasui: Taiwan chuantong yinshi yinyue yanjiu [A study of traditional recitative music in Taiwan] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1996)

Zeng Yongyi: Taiwan chuantong xiqu [Traditional opera of Taiwan] (Taipei, 1997)

Xu Yamei: Taiwan budaixi zhi houchang yinyue yanjiu [Study of the accompaniment of puppetry in Taiwan] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 2000)

Other

Hsu Tsang-houei and others, eds.: Taizhong xian yinyue fazhanshi [History of the development of music in Taizhong county] (Taizhong, 1989)

Huang Lingyu: Taiwan chegu zhi yanjiu [A study of chegu in Taiwan] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1990)

Lai Xizhong: Taiwan shisanyin zhi yanjiu [A study of shisanyin in Taiwan] (thesis, Chinese Culture U., 1990)

Hsu Tsang-houei, ed.: Zhanghua xian yinyue fazhanshi [History of the development of music in Zhanghua county] (Zhanghua, 1996)

Recordings

For Zhongguo minsu yinyue zhuanji and other series, see §1

Zhongguo minjian yinyue, iv: Minjian yueren yinyuehui xuancui, i–iii [Chinese folk music, iv: Highlights from the concerts of folk musicians, i–iii], Shuping shumu CF 001 to 003 (1978)

Xindianta Fojiao songjing changpian [Buddhist chant from Xindianta], Xindianta TWR 5033–61

Taiwan, Republic of China: The Confucius Temple Ceremony, rec. W. Laade, Music of Man Archive, Jecklin Disco JD 652-2 (1991)

Meinongren meinongge/The Songs of the Hakkas in Taiwan and the Instrumental Ensemble of the Hakkas in Taiwan, coll. Wu Rongshun and Xie Yiwen, Wind Records TCD 1801 to 1804 (1997)

Hengchun bandao min'ge jishi/Fulao Folksongs in Hengchun Peninsula of Taiwan Island Series, coll. Wu Rongshun and Chen Junbin, Wind Records TCD 1515 to 1518 (1999)

Nanguan

The Music of China, ii: The Traditional Music of Amoy, rec. F. Lieberman, AST 4002 (1971) [in ‘Anthology of the World’s Music’ series]

Nan-kouan: ballades chantées par Tsai Hsiao-yüeh, Ocora C 559004, 560037–38, 560039–41 (1988–93)

Nanguan qupai daquan/Complete Tunes of Nanguan, Chuanmen nanyueshe, Gaoxiong (1999)

Beiguan

Guosheng jingxuan beiguan xiqu [Classic beiguan theatre music from Guosheng], Guosheng KS 1011–1027 (1969–71)

Quansheng guoyue bisai ronghuo guanjuntuan: Yilan zonglanshe huihunag jiezuo [First prize of the Chinese Music Competition in Taiwan: Outstanding pieces of the Zonglan society in Yilan], Yilan, Guobin KS 3020, 3033–49 (1969–78)

Lin Achun yu Lai Musong de beiguan luantan yishu shijie [The world of the beiguan arts of Lin Achun and Lai Musong], Zhanghua xianli wenhua zhongxin (1999)

Yllan de beiguan xiqu yinyue [Music of the beiguan theatre in Yilan], Yilan xianli wenhua zhongxin (1999)

Taiwan: Bibliography

western art music

Chou Wen-chung: ‘East and West, Old and New’, AsM, i/1 (1968–9), 19–22

Chou Wen-chung: ‘Single Tones as Musical Entities: an Approach to Structured Deviations in Tonal Characteristics’, American Society of University Composers Proceedings, no.3 (1970), 86–97

Chou Wen-chung: ‘Asian Concepts and Twentieth-century Western Composers’, MQ, lvii (1971), 211–29

Guo Naidun: Taiwan Jidujiao yinyue shigang [A History of Christian music in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1986)

Yang Lixian: Taiwan xiyang yinyue shigang [A History of Western music in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1986)

‘Taiwan zuoqujia jieshao’ [Introduction to Taiwanese composers], Renmin yinyue [People’s music] [Beijing] (1988), Oct, 14–15; Nov, 4–6

Yu Sufeng: Taiwan jin sanshi nian xiandai yinyue fazhan zhi tansuo, 1945–1975 [Inquiries into the development of modern music in Taiwan in the last thirty years] (thesis, National Taiwan Normal U., 1990)

Chou Wen-chung: ‘Asian Esthetics and World Music’, New Music in the Orient: Essays on Composition in Asia since World War II, ed. H. Ryker (Buren, 1991), 177–87

Hsu Tsang-houei: ‘Republic of China’, ibid., 217–24

Hsu Tsang-houei: Taiwan yinyue shi chugao [A history of Taiwanese music: a preliminary draft] (Taipei, 1991)

Liu Ching-chih: ‘Taiwan, Xianggang he Aomen dangdai yinyue gailun’ [A survey of contemporary music in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macao], Zhongguo yinyuexue [Musicology in China] (1991), no.1, pp.36–51

H. Ryker: Introduction, New Music in the Orient: Essays on Composition in Asia since World War II, ed. H. Ryker (Buren, 1991)

Hsu Tsang-houei: ‘Taiwan diqu yinyue chuangzuo, lilun yanjiu de lishi ji xianzhuang’ [The history and current situation of music creativity and theoretic study in Taiwan], Zhongguo yinyue nianjian 1992 [China music yearbook 1992] (Beijing), 540–50

Yan Tingjie: Zhongguo xiandai yinyuejia zhuanlue [Short biographies of modern Chinese musicians] (Taipei county, 1992)

Wu Lingyi: Taiwan qianbei yinyuejia qunxiang [Faces of senior musicians in Taiwan] (Taipei, 1993)

1994 Yearbook of Composers in R.O.C. (Taipei, 1994)

S. Harrell and Huang Chun-chieh: ‘Introduction: Change and Contention in Taiwan's Cultural Scene’, Cultural Change in Postwar Taiwan, ed. S. Harrell and Huang Chun-chieh (Boulder, CO, 1994), 1–21

E.A. Winkler: ‘Cultural Policy on Postwar Taiwan’, ibid., 22–46

Chen Jui-wen Ginger: Selected Contemporary Taiwanese Composers and their Piano Works (diss., Northwestern U., 1995)

Weng Chia-fen: The Development and Growth of Choral Music in Taiwan (1624–1994) (DMA diss., U. of Texas at Austin, 1995)

Zhang Jiren: ‘Taiwan xiandai yinyue: 1945–1995’ [The modern music of Taiwan: 1945–95], A Night of Taiwanese Music [Brooklyn PO programme booklet] (17 Sept 1995), 25–31

B. Mittler: ‘The Politics of Identity in New Music from Hong Kong and Taiwan’, CHIME, no.9 (1996), 4–44

B. Mittler: Dangerous Tunes: the Politics of Chinese Music in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the People's Republic of China since 1949 (Wiesbaden, 1997)

Taiwan: Bibliography

popular music

Yao Surong, rec. c1970, Golden Penguin GP-6009 (c1997)

Teresa Teng: Greatest Hits, iii, Polygram 3199–321 (1982)

Zhanzheng yu heping [War and peace], various pfmrs, Rock Record RD-1036 (1989)

Yijin huanxiang/To Return Gloriously, perf. Luo Dayou, Rock Record RD-1062 (1989)

Zhu ni jiankang kuaile [Wishing you health and happiness], perf. K. Bee, Warner Music WEA 94000–4 (1993)

Aide guang [Brightness of love], perf. E. Chau, Rock Record RC-500 (1996)

Taiwan.

1. Introduction.

2. Aboriginal music.

(i) Documentary accounts and research.

(ii) Musical practice.

(a) Vocal music.

(b) Instrumental music.

3. Han Chinese traditional music.

(i) Genres.

(a) Ritual music.

(b) Nanguan.

(c) Beiguan.

(d) Other vocal music.

(ii) Instruments.

(a) Nanguan.

(b) Beiguan.

(iii) Notation and articulation.

4. Western art music.

(i) Before 1945.

(ii) Since 1945.

(a) The First Period (1945–60).

(b) The Second Period (1960–75).

(c) The Third Period (1975–90).

5. Popular music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

general

Recordings

aboriginal music

Early Sources

Modern sources

Tribal studies and singing styles

Instruments

Recordings

han chinese traditional music

Ritual music

Nanguan and Beiguan

Other vocal-dramatic traditions

Other

Recordings

Nanguan

Beiguan

western art music

popular music