The region known as Macedonia is not a single nation, but is divided between three states: Greece, Bulgaria and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The ancient Macedonian empire in northern Greece expanded eastwards from around 700 bce onwards. Macedonia became a Roman province and in the late 4th century bce was divided into two administrative areas: the northern Latinized part with Skopje as its capital, and the southern Graecized part with Saloniki as its capital. From the 9th century Macedonia was successively under Bulgarian, Byzantine and Serbian rule. In 1371 it was conquered by the Turks and became part of the Ottoman Empire. During the 19th century the region was disputed between Serbs, Greeks and Bulgarians, the conflict culminating in the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. In 1918 most of the territory became part of the kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenians, and in 1945 it was integrated into the Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1991 the Macedonian part of the Republic proclaimed its independence; it became a member of the United Nations in 1993 as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The majority of its population are Orthodox Macedonians, but there are also Muslims (Albanian and Turkish) and Orthodox Serbs, as well as small numbers of Croats, Montenegrins and Bulgarians.
INES WEINRICH (I), ORHAN MEMED (II)
The present discussion covers primarily the territory now known as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The first school in Macedonia to teach Byzantine liturgical chant was founded in Ohrid in the 9th century by Climent and Naum, pupils of St Cyril and St Methodius. There are no records of any Macedonian composers or musical works from the Ottoman period; it has been suggested that traditional music (see §II below) was the centre of attention at this time. Italian and later Spanish influences spread in the coastal areas from the 16th century, and the first theatres where opera performances were given date from the 17th century. The absence of a rich aristocracy in Macedonia probably delayed the development of independent Macedonian art music, which some Macedonian musicologists have linked to 19th-century political and cultural movements that led to an interest in traditional music, seeing in it the basis for a national musical style. Organized musical life in the country dates only from the beginning of the 20th century. Until the middle of the century activity centred on traditional music, with arrangements of traditional songs and the composition of new patriotic songs, particularly between the two world wars. After World War II, development accelerated in the newly created republics. There was a symphony orchestra in Skopje from 1945 and an opera and ballet company from 1947; the Macedonian PO was founded in 1949 and the Academy of Music in 1966. Musicians concerned themselves with Romanticism and neo-romanticism, neo-classicism, neo-Baroque music and Expressionism. Kiril Makedonski-Taskov (1925–84), who was influenced by the Russian school, wrote the first Macedonian opera, Goce (1954), two other operas (Tsar Samuil, 1968, and Ilinden, 1973), four symphonies, chamber music and film scores. Other Macedonian composers of opera have been Toma Proshev (b 1931), Sotir Golabovski (b 1937), Risto Avramovski (b 1943), Blagoj Trajkov (b 1944) and Dimitrije Bužarovski (b 1952), whose works use electronic and computer media. The conductor of the Skopje SO from 1945 to 1948, Todor Skalovski (b 1909), also served as director and conductor of the opera house, and in 1954 he was appointed conductor of the Macedonian PO. His works include a ballet, Pepeljuga (‘Cinderella’), chamber music and choral songs based on traditional music. Among other outstanding Macedonian composers are Stevan Gajdov (1905–92), Živko Firfov (1906–84, also the founder of Macedonian ethnomusicology), Petre Bogdanov-Kočko (b 1913), Gligor Smokvarski (b 1914) and Blagoja Ivanovski (b 1921). The works of Trajko Prokopijev (1909–79) are strongly influenced by traditional music. He was conductor of the symphony orchestra and at the Skopje opera house, and head of the music department of Macedonian Radio. His works include the ballet Lobin I Dojvana (1958), the opera Rastanak (1972), and songs, choral cycles and chamber music. Vlastimir Nikolevski (b 1925), a music teacher, opera director and music editor, composed works influenced by traditional music in his early Romantic phase; he later adopted a more modern style. Features of his compositions are old modes, melodies derived from spoken intonation, and asymmetrical rhythms.
M. Giorgievski: ‘Polozbata na notiranite muzicki rakopisi vo Makedonija nastanati do krajot na XIX vek’ [A survey of notated musical manuscripts in Macedonia produced before the end of the 19th century], Makedonska muzika, i (Struga, 1977), 31–42
D. Ortakov: Muzickata umetnost vo Makedonija [Music in Macedonia] (Skopje, 1982)
D. Ortakov: Ars nova macedonica: Osnovni estetichki procesi vo makedonskata umetnost vo XIX vek so posebesn osvri vrz muzikata [Ars nova Macedonica: the fundamental aesthetic processes in 19th-century Macedonian art, with particular references to music] (Skopje, 1986)
T. Proshev: Sovremena makedonska muzika [Macedonian contemporary music] (Pula, 1986)
T. Surev: An Annotated Bibliography of Macedonian Piano Music with a Performance Guide to Selected Works (diss., U. of Miami, 1995), based on MGG2 (v, 1603–4), by permission of Bärenreiter
The earliest research into and publication of the traditional music and poetry of this region preceded any organized national Macedonian movement. Texts of traditional music were printed as early as 1860 by Stefan Verkovic, but transcribed melodies were not published until the early 20th century, notably by Marko Cepenkov and Dmitri and Constantin Milandinov. Before this, the preservation of local traditions through oral transmission and dissemination depended upon the extent of a community's geographical and cultural isolation. Features common to the musics of the various ethnic groups in this region derived from shared customs associated with family life, village and town festivities, and ceremonies associated with the seasonal cycles of work.
The subject matter of Macedonian traditional song is wide-ranging; some songs are performed at certain times of the year, some are associated with particular customs or religious festivals, and others serve a more general purpose. Songs may be categorized by the gender of the interpreter; some laments, for example, are only sung by women, while some revolutionary songs are only sung by men. Many combinations of voices are found in ensembles; the predominance of female singing indicates the important role of women in daily life and ritual. Harvest songs, love songs and ceremonial songs associated with births, marriages and deaths form the core of the traditional song repertory. Sedenjka (working bee songs), which are lyrical in character, are common throughout the region. Revolutionary or patriotic songs are likely to be ‘epic’ or historical; the earliest sejmen (soldiers') songs collected recount the heroic struggles of the haiduks against the Turkish army, notably the Komitska songs of the Bitola region.
Macedonian traditional music is characterized by rhythmic diversity and complexity. This aspect of the music came to be considered a uniquely Macedonian feature in arrangements of Yugoslavian traditional music made after World War II. Simple metres are found almost exclusively in dance melodies or instrumental dance music, while compound metres are common in all forms of traditional music. Assymetric rhythms are created by grouping together small rhythmic units; this is exemplified in the čoček (3+3+2) rhythms of the Roma. Irregular subdivisions are commonplace, and it is often possible to discern an underlying pulse. In 7/8, for example, groups of 3+2+2 quavers may produce an accent on the downbeat; the degree of emphasis depends on the tempo. One form of vocal music uses free rhythm in a kind of musical ‘blank verse’. In instrumental variations, complex assymetric rhythms are explored through motivic development.
Scales used include the chromatic scale (with frequent use of the augmented 2nd), a modified form of a diatonic scale, and anhemitonic pentatonic scales; the latter show the influences of the modal traditions of the Orthodox Church and the oriental traditions of Asia Minor. Traditional melodies tend to move in conjunct motion; their range is usually a 4th or a 5th, but ornamentation frequently involves pitches that do not belong to the scale from which the melody is derived, and leaps of up to a 7th may be found at cadences. Scale degrees smaller than a semitone are also used; this practice has been linked to the tempered tuning of wind instruments which are used to accompany songs in rural communities. Songs with wider ranges are sung mostly in urban centres and show the influence of Western music.
Strophic organization is common. The versification of the text is followed to some extent – caesurae are carefully observed, for example – but considerable liberty may be taken with the syllabic length of verses. Syllables, words and exclamations may be inserted, truncated or repeated to fit the melody or musical metre and may sometimes be used to accentuate a weak beat. This manipulation of the text is influenced by the speech patterns of local dialects.
Unison and diaphonic singing predominate throughout Macedonia, but the composition of ensembles varies considerably in terms of the numbers and ages of the singers. Ceremonial songs and songs concerning events in everyday life are often performed by a group of three singers. One singer, often called a kreska or viši, begins a melody and is followed by a second singer, a slozhe or vleče (‘one who pulls’); the second voice may be doubled by the third voice. Parallel movement in 2nds is common, but numerous instances of the use of wider intervals may be found. Verses are passed back and forth between the singers, and the overlapping of their voices often shows great subtlety and craft.
Diaphonic singing may also consist of a melodic line with a drone. Most drones are non-rhythmic in character, but instances have been found in the music of the Skopska Crna Gora and Kriva Palanka regions of drones which imitate the rhythmic character of the melodies that they accompany. In other performances the singer performing the drone may depart from the original drone note to follow the contour of the melody to some extent. The pitch of the leading voice rarely dips below that of the drone; exceptions generally occur just before a cadence at which the voices reach a unison note. Vocal ornamentation is abundant, influenced by the highly developed tradition of ornamentation and improvisation in instrumental music.
Most Macedonian traditional music, both vocal and instrumental, evokes the dance. Dances are either teske (slow) or lake (fast), and the dancers position themselves in an open or closed circle surrounding the musicians. Asymmetric rhythms, fast tempos and complicated dance steps often demand great technical skill. The rusali and djemalari sword dances are unique to the Gevgelija region and represent the struggle between good and evil.
Groups of musical instruments can be divided into broad categories on the basis of their use in urban or village settings, indoors or outdoors. The family of flutes belongs to the village tradition and includes the supelka (common near Strumica), and the kavala and the small duduk. The double-bored dwjanka has six holes in each bore and is similar to instruments found in Bulgaria, whereas Serbian instruments have six holes in one bore and three in the other. Much larger kavali are common in the regions around Skopje and Kumanovo. The gajda or mesnica (bagpipe) similarly belongs to a village tradition; its repertory includes thematic variations as well as dance accompaniment. A particular form of ornamentation has developed in the music of the gajda and kavala deriving from the improvisatory character of the repertory of these instruments.
The three-string bowed gusla is commonly found in north-east Macedonia and is often used to accompany vocal music, as is the tambura or četvorka (a plucked string instrument which is made in various sizes). Percussion instruments such as the tarabuka (goblet drum) and the tapan (double-headed drum) also vary in size; a solo repertory has developed for these instruments that derives from their potential for rhythmic diversity.
Urban instrumental music is represented by the čalgija band, which includes Western instruments such as the violin and the clarinet as well as the kanun (zither), the ut (lute) and the tarabuka. The double-reed zurla is played in pairs with a tapan and is associated with Roma musicians; it is often played at weddings. Only the Vlachs have no tradition of instrumental music; they believe that such music is evil.
Government-sponsored programmes after the foundation of Yugoslavia in 1945 aimed to cultivate and support a Macedonian musical identity. Research programmes renewed interest in the study and collection of indigenous traditions, but many local and regional variants were lost in an attempt to reduce a wealth of musical styles to a few common elements. Changes in methods of agricultural production and the flourishing of the gradska pesna (urban song) had profound effects on music-making in Macedonia. The foundation of an Institute of Folklore (Institut za Folklor) in 1950 and the activities of Macedonian radio and television contributed to the preservation of traditional culture by amassing a substantial collection of archival documents and audio recordings. ‘Folklore’ festivals in Ohrid and Skopje since 1962 have encouraged the performance of many forms of traditional music. Outside Skopje, notably in Stip, individuals continue the tradition of instrument making. Large diasporas in Australia, Canada and the USA have adapted their musical heritage to their new environments, and traditional music continues to inspire composers and performers of contemporary art music.
See also Albania, §II, 1.
Ž Firfov: Makedonski muzićki folklor, i (Skopje, 1953)
M. Vasiljević: Jugoslovenski muzićki folklor, ii: Makedonija (Belgrade, 1953)
V. Hadžimanov: Makedonski narodni pesni [Macedonian folksongs] (Skopje, 1953–6)
Ž Firfov and M. Simonovski: Makedonski muzićki folklor, ii (Skopje, 1959)
A. Linin: ‘Gadje u Makedoniji’ [Bagpipes in Macedonia], Yugoslav Folklore Association: Congress XV: Jajce 1968, 347
P. Petrov: ‘Narodnata obredna pesna pri umreno’ [Ritual funeral songs], Makedonski folklor, i/1 (1968), 69
G. Gjorgjiev: ‘Formalni strukturi na refrenskite melodii vo makedonskite narodni pesni’, Makedonski folklor, ii/3–4 (1969), 299
A. Linin: ‘Gajdite na Balkanot’ [Bagpipes in the Balkans], Makedonski folklor, ii/3–4 (1969), 305
T. Bicevski: ‘Prilog kon proućuvanjeto na obrednite pesni’ [The study of ritual songs], Makedonski folklor, iii/ 5–6 (1970), 81
A. Linin: ‘Instrumentalnite sostavi vo makedonskata narodna muzika’ [Instrumental groups in Macedonian folk music], Makedonski folklor, iii/ 5–6 (1970), 105
B. Trarup: East Macedonian Folk Songs (Copenhagen, 1970)
B. Ristovski and G. Gjorgjiev: Makedonski revolucionerin narodni pesni [Macedonian revolutionary folksongs] (Skopje, 1974)
A. Linin: Makedonski instrumentalni orski narodni melodni [Macedonian instrumental folkdance melodies] (Skopje, 1978)
L. Karovski and T. Bicevski, eds.: Makedonski pećalbarski narodni pesni [Macedonian folksongs of economic emigration] (Skopje, 1979)
Makedonski pesni za narodno-osloboditelnata borba [Macedonian revolutionary folksongs] (Skopje, 1980)
B. Džimrevski: Čalgiskata tradicija vo Makedonija [The Čalgija tradition in Macedonia] (Skopje, 1985) [score]
T. Bicevski: Čvoglasjeto vo SR Makedonija [Two-part popular songs of Macedonia] (Skopje, 1986)
T. Bicevski: Dvoglasni makedonski narodni pesni [Two-part Macedonian folksongs] (Skopje, 1988) [score]
T. Bicevski: Makedonski narodni pesni od Vodensko [Macedonian folksongs from the Voden region] (Skopje, 1989)
B. Džimrevski: Gajdata vo Makedonija: instrument, instrumentalist, musika [The bagpipe (gajda) in Macedonia: the instrument, the players, the music] (Skopje, 1996)
T. Bicevski: Melodikata vo makedonskata narodna pesna i nejsinite relacii so drugite žanrovi i kulturi [Melodic elements in Macedonian folksong and its relations with other genres and cultures] (Skopje, 1997)