Country in South-east Asia. It is bordered by Laos in the north, Vietnam in the east, the Gulf of Thailand in the south and Thailand in the north and west. Its population is more than 90% Khmer but also includes small numbers of Vietnamese, Chinese, Khmer Loeu (‘Highland Khmer’) and Cham. This entry mainly concerns the music of the Khmer majority.
During the 12th century, Mahayana Buddhism had strong royal support and consequently became the state religion; by the beginning of the 14th century the Khmers had converted to Therevada Buddhism, which has been practised up to the present.
2. Music performing practice and ensembles.
SAM-ANG SAM
By the beginning of the Christian era, Kaundinya (believed to have been a Brahman) had set to sea from India to conquer and defeat the indigenous queen Soma, whom he wedded. He was crowned as the first King of Funan (Founan), the centre of which was situated on the lower Mekong delta with its territory covering the southern part of present-day Vietnam, the middle Mekong and large parts of the Menam valley and the Malay peninsula.
At the beginning of the 8th century ce, the country was divided into two states, Chenla Kok in the north and Chenla Toeuk in the south. In 802, Jayavarman II, having taken refuge in Java at the confutation of succession, liberated and unified Chenla, founding the kingdom of Angkor. This was the most glorious period of Khmer history in terms of military power, territorial expansion, healthcare, educational achievement, agricultural development and cultural expression. On the walls of the great temples constructed during this period in the Angkor vicinity are carved apsara (celestial dancer) figures along with musical instruments: pinn (harp), sralai (quadruple-reed oboe), korng vung (semicircular gong-chime), ching (small hand cymbals), sampho (small double-headed barrel drum), skor yol (suspended barrel drum) and skor thom (large double-headed barrel drum). The similarity between the carvings and present-day Khmer instruments suggests strong musical links between the two periods.
The death of Jayavarman VII in 1219 ended this fruitful period. Under his successor, Khmer power began to decline; in 1432 Angkor was abandoned to the Siamese. After the fall of Angkor, the country was unstable and unable to resist foreign invasions. Finally, with the help of the Siamese in 1842, Ang Duong ascended the throne and reigned until 1860; during this period Khmer arts underwent a revival.
On 11 August 1863, three years after King Ang Duong's death, the Khmer kingdom became a French protectorate. Independence from the French was proclaimed on 9 November 1953 by Prince Norodom Sihanouk, who gave up his throne in 1955 and became Head of State. On 18 March 1970, Prince Sihanouk was overthrown in a military coup, and Marshal Lon Nol created the Khmer Republic. On 17 April 1975 the Khmer Rouge took over; in their reign of terror (1975–9), during which some two million Khmers were killed, classical dancers were considered enemies of the state, and revolution propaganda was the only recognized form of art. The Khmer Rouge were deposed on 7 January 1979, and national elections in May 1993 resulted in a national constitution, a coalition government and the reinstallation of the monarchy.
Khmer music consists of polyphonic stratification; it is organized linearly and is based predominantly on the pentatonic scale (more specifically the anhemitonic pentatonic scale, one without semitones), though the heptatonic scale is also used. Both the pentatonic and heptatonic scales contain unequidistant intervals, and their tunings vary from one ensemble to the next. Embellishment or ornamentation is an inherent characteristic in the rendition of Khmer music. Musicians in ensembles have a collective melody with prescribed important structural points in mind, which is embellished rather than sounded.
Instruments in ensembles are not grouped according to families (aerophones, chordophones etc.); instead they are grouped according to their register (high-pitched or low-pitched) or time-keeping functions. In performance the high-pitched instruments tend to play more notes to the beat; the low-pitched instruments play fewer notes to the beat, and the timekeeping instruments regulate the tempo. Traditionally, pieces are not written down but are passed on aurally from master to pupil; the composers of compositions are not usually known. Music is an important aspect of Khmer life and culture, epitomizing the history of Cambodia, its society, people, art, customs and beliefs. Music is central to dance, theatre and traditional and religious ceremonies including weddings and spirit-worship.
There are several types of ensembles, used in different contexts. Ritual ensembles include arak (used in spirit-worship), kar (wedding ensemble), klang khek (funeral ensemble) and pey keo (used in ancestor-worship). Pin peat, originally a court ensemble, also accompanies certain theatre forms and monastic rites, while mohori is performed primarily for entertainment. There are ensembles associated with folkdance (kngaok Posat and tunsong; see §3(ii) below) and those deriving their name from the type of theatre they accompany, for example basak (theatre of Chinese origin) and yike (folk theatre of Muslim origin; see §4 below). There are also ensembles associated with vocal genres ayai (repartee singing) and chrieng chapey (epic singing).
Arak. The Khmer living in remote rural areas still adhere to animistic practices. The arak ensemble (the oldest Khmer ensemble) is used to induce a medium into trance in order to detect the cause of an illness. The ensemble includes pey prabauh (double-reed oboe), Khse muoy (musical bow), tror khmai (three-string spike fiddle), chapey (long-necked lute), skor dey (goblet drum) and chamrieng (vocals).
Kar. From the time of building a house as a dowry to the intention of the bride's family to the second day during the ceremony of hair cutting, each part of the wedding ceremony is accompanied by phleng kar (phleng khmai), considered to be one of the oldest Khmer music ensembles. Two types of instrumentation are often found. The older one consists of pey brabauh (double reed aerophone), khase muoy (musical bow), tror khmai (three-string spike fiddle), chapey (long necked lute), skor dey (goblet drum) and chamrieng (vocals). The newer type includes khloy (duct flute), tror so tauch (medium-high-pitched two-string fiddle), tror ou (low-pitched two-string fiddle), krapeu (three-string floor zither), khimm (hammered dulcimer), chhing (small hand cymbals), skor dey (goblet drum) and chamrieng (vocals). Phleng kar refers to both the ensemble and its repertory. Airs such as Preah Thong and Neang Neak (named after two mythical characters), commemorate their union and are played during the nuptial prostration or while the groom holds the bride's scarf when entering their bedroom for the first time.
The pin peat is a wind and percussion ensemble of reed aerophones, xylophones, metallophones, gongs, cymbals, drums and vocals. It can be dated as far back as the Angkor period through the evidence of stone carvings of its instruments on temple walls. It accompanies Khmer court dance, masked play, shadow play and religious ceremonies (for instrumentation, see Pin Peat).
Mohori refers to both the ensemble and its repertory. The most commonly found mohori ensemble comprises wind, string and percussion instruments. The instrumentation varies, depending upon patronage and ownership of the ensemble (for further information, see Mohori). Mohori is light in character and is used in secular contexts, at banquets or to accompany a mohori play and folkdances of recent origin.
Klang khek is a funeral ensemble used in the procession of a body to the crematorium. It consists of sralai klang khek (oboe) and several skor yol (suspended barrel drums). The ensemble plays a single piece, called klang yuan.
Pey keo is an ensemble used in ancestor-worship in the palace by the royal family and high-ranking officials, or by commoners during the Ancestral Day ceremony. It consists of roneat (xylophone), korng thom (low pitched circular gong chime), khloy (duct flute), tror khmai (three-string spike fiddle), chapey (long necked lute), skor dey (goblet drum) and chamrieng (vocals). The ensemble shares its repertory with the arak.
Ayai is a type of repartee singing, usually the alternation of a man and a woman, accompanied by an ensemble of the same name. Vocalists perform for hours, improvising on short topical themes that are sometimes agreed upon before the performance. Ayai singers perform an unaccompanied line of text, immediately followed by a small ensemble of strings (tror, krapeu and khimm), flute (khloy) and drum (skor dey) playing standard patterns. Sung phrases conform to set poetic metres, often in a 28-syllable stanza consisting of four phrases of seven syllables each. This art requires fast thinking, a good voice, some acting ability and a mastery of Khmer poetry. Intellectuals and the élite consider ayai to be a low-class entertainment for common peasants, an attitude partly due to the bawdiness of the language. In traditional Cambodia, refined young women were not allowed to watch these performances.
Chiang chapey. Epic singing is a solo performance in which the male singer is also the player of the long-necked lute (chapey). He usually improvises on a theme or story, alternately singing a line and playing the lute.
Khmer court dance, performed in the palace and known as Ikhaon luong (‘king's theatre’) or Ikhaon preah reach troap (‘king's treasure theatre’), was set with lavish costumes incorporating elaborate jewellery. This dance or dance–drama has been associated with the royal court of Cambodia for over 1000 years. In 1353, after the collapse of the civilization of Angkor, dance moved away from the temple and followed the king's entourage to each new capital city.
Khmer court dance has been regarded as a female tradition, with women performing all the roles. Only in the 20th century were male dancers allowed to perform alongside women, playing the monkey role in the style of the men's dance drama lkhaon khaol (masked play); females, male and demon characters are played by female dancers. Each of the four major character types (females, males, demons and monkeys) uses its own particular movement vocabulary and syntax, which together with costumes, headdresses and masks, identify the characters.
Dancers are trained from the age of six in the royal palace, traditionally only venturing beyond the palace walls to attend to the king. Their training encompasses painful exercises to stretch and bend the waist, arms, elbows, wrists and fingers in order to communicate a wide repertory that includes romances, myths, non-programmatic pieces and regional epics such as Preah Chinnavung, Preah Chan Korup and Reamker (the Rāmāyana). Court dance is traditionally accompanied by the pin peat ensemble. The choir sings texts that tell stories, while dancers express the plots through dance movements and gestures.
After the overthrow of the monarchy in 1970 and the genocidal communist regime of Pol Pot in the 1970s, Khmer court dance changed its image and status, moving outside the palace walls to the University of Fine Arts campus in Phnom Penh, to the refugee camps along the Thai–Khmer border and to Khmer communities abroad. In this latter environment, Khmer court dance has been learnt and performed widely by members of the Khmer communities, particularly children, to the extent that it is viewed simply as traditional Khmer dance.
While Khmer court dance is subject to particular rules, strict form and a prescribed language of movements and gestures, Khmer folkdance is spontaneous and is created for emotional expression. It is solely of peasant origin and use. In rural Cambodia people dance around the village green or on a rough stage built under spreading trees. Dances are usually based on local legends and everyday events, with themes concerning religion and nature. Folkdances are usually accompanied by the standard mohori ensemble. However, there are particular dances, such as kngaok Posat and tunsong, which call for other ensembles. The ensemble accompanying kngaok Posat consists of tror khmai (three-string spike fiddle), skor kngaok Posat (frame drum) and chamrieng (vocals), while that accompanying tunsong comprises ploy (mouth organ), skor tunsong (frame drum) and chamrieng (vocals).
Robam pracheaprey (‘popular dance’) is ubiquitous in Cambodia, involving people of all ages and both genders. Included in all social events, it is accompanied by the modern popular band of electric guitars, electric basses, keyboards, drum kits and vocals. Larger bands also include wind and string sections. Songs are often based on rhythms borrowed from Latin American music (e.g. Cha cha cha, Bolero and Bossa nova) with Khmer melodies and lyrics. Cover versions of Western pop music are also performed; however, the most popular songs employ Khmer rhythms, including roam vung, roam kbach, saravane and laim Leav, as well as using other elements of Khmer melody and performing style.
Popular Western music and social dances were introduced to Khmers by the Filipinos and the French. In the early 1900s, the Khmer court received from the Philippines the gift of a large band. The Filipino musicians taught marching music to Khmer royal symphonic orchestras, participated in court ensembles and performed in jazz bands at night clubs. The musicians introduced Latin and other popular dance rhythms into Khmer dance, founding big bands that played at ballroom dances and were called phleng Manil (Manila music). Western music was also disseminated by French schoolteachers and in some military academies, and high-ranking officers received formal training in European-derived dances.
At parties, musicians usually play dances in pairs, one in slow tempo, the other fast. Roam vung is always the first dance at any social event. The traditional Khmer social dances (roam vung, roam kbach, saravane and laim Leav) are all couple dances, danced in a circle with the men behind the women in an anticlockwise direction; the host or other prominent person leads. The female leads the man, moving from side to side and seeking eye contact; these dances are an important part of courtship.
Among the Khmer communities abroad (mainly in America, Australia and France), social dancing helps bring individuals and families together at celebrations and fundraising activities. Many Khmers remember dancing the roam vung, roam kbach, saravane and laim Leav in Cambodia in the ricefields at the completion of planting and harvest, to the accompaniment of the tror (two-string fiddle), skor dey (goblet drum) and chamrieng (vocals).
There are several types of theatre: lkhaon mohori (mohori theatre), lkhaon yike (folk theatre of Muslim origin), lkhaon basak (theatre of Chinese origin), lkhaon khaol (masked play) and lkhaon sbaik (shadow play). In cities and large towns across Cambodia, social, cultural, national and religious events seldom took place without theatrical performances.
Lkhaon yike is a folk theatre genre of Muslim origin, believed to have been developed from an Islamic religious ceremony performed by the Cham ethnic minority who have been settled in Cambodia for centuries. Lkhaon yike combines dancing, acting, speaking and singing. The themes are drawn from the Buddhist jatakas (life stories of the Buddha) and folk legends. The yike ensemble consists of tror ou (low-pitched two-string fiddle), skor yike (large frame drums) and chamrieng (vocals). The leader of the troupe sets the plots, supervises the performances and is the lead narrator in performances. Although most of the original characteristics have been ‘Khmerized’ over the years, some elements, such as the musical instruments – particularly the skor yike and songs – remain identifiably Muslim.
Lkhaon basak is believed to have been developed from the Chinese opera, which was brought to Cambodia at the turn of the 20th century. Although several Chinese characteristics have been modified to suit Khmer tastes, some Chinese elements remain, such as the headdresses, face-painting and costumes, as well as the music ensemble and repertory. Of the Khmer theatre forms, the basak is perhaps the most popular. Like the lkhaon yike, the lkhaon basak combines dancing, acting, speaking and singing. Themes are drawn from the Buddhist jatakas and popular legends. The basak ensemble includes the tror ou (low-pitched two-string fiddle), khimm (hammered dulcimer) and various percussion, including pann (woodblocks), chhap/khmuoh (cymbals) and skor basak (drums).
The lkhaon khaol (masked play) is a male dance-drama tradition, and has its home in the village. All characters in the Reamker (Rāmāyana) story wear masks, except the female characters who cover their faces with white powder. The pin peat ensemble serves as the accompaniment to the lkhaon khaol, which at one time was an inherent part of life of the rural Khmers. Unfortunately, this theatre form has declined. It is now almost extinct, practised minimally by a troupe in Vatt Svay Andet (Kandal province), at the Royal University of Fine Arts and at the Department of Arts and Performing Arts, both in Phnom Penh.
There are three types of lkhaon sbaik (shadow play) in Cambodia: lkhaon sbaik thom (large-sized shadow play), lkhaon sbaik tauch (small-sized shadow play) and lkhaon sbaik poar (coloured shadow play). The Ikhaon sbaik thom features life-size panels, placed above the head and danced with by the puppeteer. The Ikhaon sbaik tauch features small puppets with moveable arms and jaws, manipulated by the puppeteer. Similar in size to those of the lkhaon sbaik thom, the puppets of lkhaon sbaik poar are painted with a range of colours. The lkhaon sbaik thom and lkhaon sbaik poar draw their theme from the Reamker story, while the lkhaon sbaik tauch draws its plots from popular legends and current events; both are supported by the pin peat ensemble. The screen against which the puppeteers hold their puppets was formerly illuminated by an enormous brazier, set about 3 to 5 metres away from the screen to allow the puppeteers to pass freely, but now projectors replace the flames. In villages there are performances that last all night; however, with the advent of television and cinema, the popularity of lkhaon sbaik has declined.
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