A form of medieval Office, of Carolingian origin and common until about 1500, in which some or all of the antiphons and responsories are in verse. The vast majority are for saints’ days, but some are for particular Sundays or other feasts, including Advent, Trinity and Corpus Christi. Both metrical and accentual versification systems were used, and the verse was frequently rhymed. At least 1500 such Offices are known, some consisting of as many as 50–60 versified items (and there are countless others with only a single item); they are found throughout western Europe, including regions such as Scandinavia and Poland, whose conversion to Christianity was relatively late. (For a discussion of the overall structure of the Office, see Divine Office.)
RITVA MARIA JACOBSSON (1–2), ANDREAS HAUG (3)
No medieval equivalent exists for the modern term ‘versified Office’. Designations from the period refer to other aspects of the texts, for example, Responsoria cum antiphonis … dulcissime modulationis (‘Responsories with antiphons of the sweetest melody’; see Jonsson, 116–18). The term historia, first used by Amalarius of Metz, denotes a coherent series of responsories (antiphons were also added on occasion) to be sung at the liturgical Hours on a particular feast day (e.g. historia de Iudith); the texts were taken from books of the Bible other than Psalms. At a later date non-biblical sources, some of which might be versified, were used for the responsories and antiphons of newly written Offices, for example, those for saints. A coherent narrative is often, though not invariably, followed within Offices of this kind.
During the later Middle Ages, there are many instances in which historia signifies ‘versified Office’. The more general term officium could also refer to such an Office. ‘Rhymed Office’, a term current since the publication of Analecta Hymnica Medii Aevi (1886–1922) and hitherto used widely (and often loosely) by scholars, nevertheless refers to a subcategory of versified Office, which itself is a subcategory of historia. The versified Office is not, however, a liturgical genre in its own right: it simply defines the textual technique of a historia.
Historiae (and hence versified Offices) are usually found in antiphoners or in special libelli for particular feasts; complete Offices, with psalms, lessons, hymns etc., are found in breviaries. With the proliferation of saints’ cults during the Middle Ages, there was a corresponding growth in the popularity of the versifed Office. New Offices (as well as hymns, tropes and sequences) were often written for well-known saints; thus, for example, 21 different versified Offices survive for St Anne alone. In many cases a clear local influence on these new compositions is evident: towns, villages, monasteries and churches were all keen to place themselves under the patronage of a saint, perhaps some long-dead figure recently brought to prominence through the discovery or translation of relics. Religious orders such as the Dominicans and Franciscans, through the composition and diffusion of their own Offices, also played an important role in the dissemination of the versified Office. In some places new, versified Offices replaced the older prose Offices, for example, the Office of St Benedict (original Offices: CAO, i–ii, nos.505, 575, 1024; versified Offices: AH, xxv, 145–52).
Versified Office texts are often formulaic: repetition and paraphrase are common, as in hymns and sequences, and the various saints’ virtues, torments and miraculous deeds are mostly recounted in stereotyped fashion. Many texts have similar openings, as, for example, Ave gemma claritatis, Ave gemma confessorum and Ave gemma pretiosa. Frequently, the same text, with only the names changed, is used for the invitatories of different saints, as in the following example, where ‘Germanum’ might be replaced by ‘Lambertum’, ‘Mariam’ or ‘Cucufathem’, sometimes at the expense of the prosodic scheme:
Aeternum trinumque Deum laudemus et unum
qui sibi Germanum transvexit in aethera sanctum.
Nevertheless, the repertory contains much that is of both poetic and musical value.
A broad spectrum of metrical and accentual verse forms is found, including hexameters, elegiac distichs, accentual trochaic septenarii and iambic dimeters (Ambrosian strophes), as well as irregular forms (e.g. the Office of St Chrysanthus and St Daria, AH, xxv, 207). A kind of ‘prosimetrum’, a combination of prose and different kinds of verse within the same Office, is common, particularly in the earlier period (see Norberg).
All the texts within a versified Office functioned together and were always sung together during a particular liturgical celebration. Thus antiphons not infrequently reflect their psalms or canticles, and responsories echo their readings; within the whole context there is a network of allusions, quotations, themes and symbols. For example, the text of the opening of the Benedictus is as follows (Luke i.68–9):
Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel, quia visitavit et redemit populum suum,
et erexit cornu salutis nobis in domo David servi suo.
This is directly echoed by the following Benedictus antiphon (AH, xxviii, 262):
Cornu salutis erexit
nobis deus qui respexit
exaltando visitando
per utrumque Valentinum.
(It should be noted that in editions such as Analecta Hymnica, a versified Office will normally consist of the antiphons and responsories for Matins, Lauds and Vespers – the Little Hours mostly repeat pre-existing chants – but not the hymns, even in the case of late Offices where a hymn, and sometimes also a sequence, was composed together with the other pieces and appeared in the same manuscript.)
The oldest surviving source with chants for the entire Office is the Compiègne Antiphoner (F-Pn lat.17436) dating from 860–80. The antiphons and responsories it contains are compiled from the Bible and other texts such as Patristic sermons; many of the non-biblical chants focus on the Virgin. The manuscript includes versified items for Christmas, the Holy Cross, St Benedict, St Peter the Apostle and the local saint Medardus, and are derived from three main sources: hymns (metrical and accentual), metrical lives of the saints and inscriptions in churches. The Office for Christmas, for example, which includes antiphons in elegiac distichs and trochaic septenarii, uses strophes from Sedulius’s Carmen paschale (a biblical epic in hexameter verse) and from his hymn A solis ortus cardine, and an inscription from the Basilica di Santa Maria Nuova in Rome. All sources, including the Bible, were reworked in various ways, and the original versification was sometimes ignored, suggesting that even items originally in verse were chosen for their content rather than their form.
In the 10th century, versified Offices seem to have been created in much the same way, that is, through compilation and arrangement of existing textual material; there is no instance from this period in which every item of an Office is in verse. A greater overall coherence is evident in many versified Offices written during the period between the 11th century and the Council of Trent, and most of those from the later Middle Ages have the same kind of verse throughout. The stylistic history of versified Offices is in fact similar to that of hymns and sequences: the distinctions between the various genres gradually diminished. Thus, in the later Middle Ages there are more frequent and more sophisticated rhymes, but also texts written in classical hexameters. Prose Offices also continued to be composed throughout the period.
Among the oldest surviving 10th-century Offices is that for the Trinity composed by Stephen of Liège. It is written in highly structured prose (with several rhymes), and is mainly compiled from verses from the Bible and hymn doxologies, including parts of Alcuin's hymn to the Trinity (PL, ci, 55). In the first antiphon at Lauds, in iambic dimeter, the three persons of the Trinity are not referred to by name but as ‘Trinitas aequalis’ and ‘una Deitas’ (CAO, iii, no.2948):
Gloria tibi, Trinitas
aequalis, una Deitas,
et ante omnia saecula
et nunc et in perpetuum.
The word order used in these terms is known as ‘chiastic’, since equivalent parts of speech form the shape of the Greek letter chi (χ). In the third antiphon at Lauds, based on a hymn to St Vedastus by Alcuin (AH, l, 155), the subject is ‘gloria’, to which two similar verbs, ‘resonet’ and ‘resultet’, are tied, both with forms of ‘laus’; the singers are present in the text through the phrase ‘in ore omnium’, and the verse form is a Sapphic stanza (CAO, iii, 1968, no.2947):
Gloria laudis resonet in ore
omnium patris genitaeque prolis,
Spiritus sancti pariter resultet
laude perenni.
Although this Office is not a historia in the narrative sense, it was known from an early date as the historia de Trinitate, and like the Office for Christmas was in widespread use until the Second Vatican Council.
The Office of St Lambert (AH, xvi, 230), also compiled by Stephen of Liège, is more conventional in that it consists mainly of items taken from pre-existing works devoted to the saint's life: the rhymed prose Gesta sancti Lamberti, mostly for the responsories, and the hexameter epos Carmen de sancto Lamberto, particularly for the antiphons. All the prose chants are fully rhymed, but many fewer than half of the hexameter parts of the Office contain Leonine rhymes. The Office also includes a Magnificat antiphon in trochaic septenarii with a few rhymes. The chants contain laudatory expressions from the Carmen and form a narrative sequence following the saint's life from childhood to martyrdom.
In the Office of St Fuscianus and his Companions (AH, xiii, 150), the earliest source for which is the 10th-century Mont-Renaud manuscript (PalMus, 1st ser, xvi, 1955/R), almost all the responsories are in prose whereas all the antiphons are in verse – hexameters and pentameters (about half of them with Leonine rhymes), a few trochaic septenarii, and other, hybrid types. The texts are drawn from the lives of the saints, including the epic Carmen de sancto Quintino, but the original prose or hexameters have been mostly reworked. For example, lines 150–51 of the Carmen are hexameters:
Regia martyrii redimitum munere caeli
sed iam Quintinum posuit super astra polorum.
(But the kingdom of heaven has already placed Quintinus
above the stars, crowned with the gift of martyrdom.)
But in the Office, at the second antiphon of the second nocturn, the second line of this text has been adapted to obtain a pentameter or kind of hybrid verse:
Regia martyrii redimitum munere caeli
sed iam Quintinum sumpserat emeritum.
(But the kingdom of heaven had already taken Quintinus, who
now had finished serving, crowned with the gift of martyrdom.)
Some Offices from the earliest group are in octosyllabic verse: the Office of St Cuthbert, found in a number of 10th-century sources (GB-Lbl Harl.1117, Ccc 183, I-Rvat Reg.lat.204, etc.), consists of octosyllabic verse with some rhymes. It follows the general outline of both of Bede’s Vitae sancti Cuthberti but seems to be an independent composition. Another, slightly later example is the well-known versified Office in honour of St Gregory the Great composed by Pope Leo IX (Bruno of Toul, d 1054; AH, v, 184). Except for the invitatory, which is in hexameters, the entire Office is in non-accentual and non-metrical octosyllabic rhyming couplets.
The Venetian Office of St Eufemia and her Companions is from a later group of Offices, and parts of it are highly structured. Thus, for example, in the invitatory (written in accentual trochaic dimeters) there is a play on the word ‘virgo’ in which the Blessed Virgin Mary is linked with Jesus and the virgin saints:
Virgo sponsum veneretur, virginem ecclesia,
Virginumque filiarum celebrat sollemnia.
(The Virgin may venerate the bridegroom and the Church the Virgin,
as it celebrates the solemnity of the virgin daughters.)
Julian of Speier (d 1250) composed the widely known versified Offices for St Francis, Franciscus vir catholicus (AH, v, 175), and for St Anthony of Padua, Gaudeat ecclesia (AH, v, 126). Both are systematically rhymed: the former is in regular accentual iambic verse and the latter in accentual trochaic septenarii. John Peckham (d 1292) wrote one of the many versified Offices modelled upon Julian’s work, the Trinity Office Sedenti super solium (AH, v, 20).
(For further information on Office texts, see the introductions to AH, 1889–1909/R, v, xiii, xivb, xvii, xviii, xxiv–xvi, xlia, xlva, xlviii, lii.)
The melodies of versified Office chants are often indistinguishable in style from those of prose Offices. There was no a priori requirement for versified Office music to differ from traditional prose chant or for composers to write in a new style; one composer, Letaldus of Micy, is even said to have ‘declined to abandon similarity to old chant’ (excedere noluit a similitudine veteris cantus) and to have disapproved of the ‘novitas’ sought by others (PL, xxxvii, 784). Thus, the versified antiphon melodies in exx.1 and 3 below are no different from the kind of standard prose antiphon melody in ex.7 below; such similarity is due to the common melodic type rather than to deliberate borrowing. A number of hymn melodies resemble versified antiphon melodies (see below, ex.8), but generally any similarity between antiphons and hymns is caused more by the hymn-like forms of antiphon texts rather than the hymn-like characteristics of antiphon melodies.
Developments in melodic style that occurred during the 11th and 12th centuries were neither exclusive to Offices with versified texts nor related in any obvious way to the use of verse. Nevertheless, certain versified Offices from the 11th to the 13th centuries, for example, the Office of St Gregory (see Hiley, 1993), the Office of St Thomas of Canterbury (Stäblein), various Offices attributed to Bruno of Toul (Bernard) and some Rhenish rhymed Offices (Jammers), reveal a more condensed musical style with a prevalence of short, self-contained lines, restricted melodic goals and closer sequences of melodic cadences (see Hiley, 1993, p.276). These stylistic changes may have arisen through the need to accommodate shorter textual units and the regular accentual verse cadences often reinforced by rhyme (particularly from the 12th century onwards).
A common musical device in medieval Office composition, appearing from the 10th century onwards and mentioned by Stephen of Liège, is the numerical ordering of chants according to their mode; but this feature was not unique to Offices with versified texts (see Hughes, 1983). Such an arrangement was probably influenced by tonaries (Huglo, 1971, p.122); in tonaries, however, the mode is a criterion by which pre-existing chant is classified, whereas in Offices it functions as a category of composition (Haug, 1991, pp.117–19).
Examples of pre-Carolingian versified Office chants exist, although their occurrence is sporadic. The Latin hymn also served as a concrete model for Office compositions and as a general paradigm for any attempt to represent in music the formal features of Latin verse in a linguistically competent way (see Hymn, §II). Nevertheless, the emergence of the versified Office might best be interpreted as a typically Carolingian phenomenon – a result of the encounter between a melodic idiom whose origins lay in the setting of biblical Latin prose (i.e. traditional liturgical chant) and the poetic intricacies of classical Latin verse.
An important question from both a liturgical and an aesthetic point of view concerns the extent to which the music made the verse form perceptible to those who sang or listened to it. Melodies that articulate verse structure may well indicate a genuine interest by composers in the verse per se, to a degree perhaps sufficient to have motivated the use of poetic diction within Office chant. Certainly those antiphons that are melodically similar to hymns (as in ex.1) seem to reveal an appreciation for the intrinsic song-like qualities of the verse. Also important, particularly to the music historian, is whether the more complex, ambiguous structure of certain versified texts affected the structure of the melodies. Increasing textual intricacy may not only have necessitated changes in the musical style of Latin chant but also contributed to a growth in the potential of monophonic music to articulate text. A metrical text whose syntax is as discontinuous as that of the antiphon in ex.2 (from the Office of St Fuscianus and his Companions; see §2(ii) above) poses problems of melodic composition far beyond the basic concern of rendering the text intelligible.
A widely diverse range of musical settings is evident within the repertory. Some chants focus on verbal syntax and meaning but ignore the verse form; others emphasize the verse form alone; while others reveal a subtle balance between all these elements. Such differences become apparent on close analysis of text and music, taking into account whatever performance indications are provided by the notation. By way of example, the versified antiphons in exx.3 and 4 reveal a conflict between verse form and syntax. In ex.3 the main syntactic (and sense) groups are as follows:
Gloria tibi | trinitas aequalis | una deitas
In terms of the verse form, however, the same words constitute two lines, with the line division coming after ‘trinitas’, thus causing an enjambement:
Gloria tibi trinitas / aequalis una deitas
The melody at the outset is hymn-like and resembles that of Auctor donorum in ex.1. The verse lines, rather than the sense units, are marked off with identical and unambiguous cadences. However, the neumatic notation (see illustration) indicates that the cadential effect of these figures is to be modified in performance: on the last syllable of ‘deitas’, which marks the end of both a line and a sense group, an episema signifies a lengthening of the note; however, there is no such episema on the corresponding syllable of ‘trinitas’, which occurs at the end of a line but in the middle of a sense group. In other words, although syntax and sense were subordinated to verse form in the composition of the melody, they were not entirely to be ignored during performance.
In ex.4 a similar enjambement occurs at ‘in ore / omnium’: the end of the verse line at ‘ore’ is not marked by a cadence, but instead – and in contradiction to the verse form – there is a melodic parallelism between the sense units ‘Gloria laudis resonet in ore omnium’ and ‘Patri geniteque proli spiritui sancto pariter’. As fig.1 shows, the notation includes a ‘c’ (celeriter: ‘quickly’), which prevents the performer from slowing down at the end of the verse line; moreover, the capital ‘P’ of ‘Patri’ implies a pause after ‘omnium’, that is, at the end of the sense group rather than the verse line. It appears, therefore, that the scribe and the singers for whom the book was prepared were aware of the versification of the text but also of the convention of performing it as if it were in prose (see Björkvall and Haug, 1999, pp.10–13).
A number of prose responsories and versified antiphons from the Office of St Lambert by Stephen of Liège are contained in B-Br 14650–59 (f.118), copied at the beginning of the 10th century). In this source the antiphons are written in pairs of hexameters, and the verse form is reflected in the layout of the manuscript, each line beginning with a capital letter. Two of these antiphons are transcribed in ex.5. There is no indication that the melodies were designed to reflect syllabic quantities: the setting is not sufficiently syllabic to be performed with longer and shorter notes corresponding to the long and short syllables, and there is no tendency for the longer melismas to occur on long rather than on short syllables. Indeed, there is no evidence at all that the music was conceived with the scansion of the verse in mind. If the ascent from g to c' is regarded as a melodic accent, most such accents coincide with the prose accentuation rather than with the ictus of the verse.
Although syllabic quantity and verse ictus are not integral to these examples, the music nevertheless makes essential features of the poetic metre perceptible by marking line-endings and internal caesuras with recognizable cadential figures. In ex.5 the ends of most lines are set to a recurring cadential figure. Moreover, all the lines transcribed have a caesura in the third foot, and this too is often marked by a melodic cadence. There are, however, notable exceptions to this strategy: in cases where marking the verse structure would cause an interruption to the syntax, a compromise is made so that the meaning of the words remains clear. In ex.5b there is an enjambement from the noun ‘ocellis’ to its qualifier ‘illius’; the cadential figure at the end of the other verse lines is not used at ‘ocellis’, and as a result the effect of the enjambement is veiled rather than enhanced by the music. A similar process has been observed in other Offices (see Schlager, 1993).
The text of the antiphon from the Office of St Fuscianus (see ex.2) is based on the Carmen de sancto Quintino. Since a pair of hexameters from the original poem has been transformed into an elegiac distich without any significant change of textual content, the genuine intention must have been a change of metre. Not surprisingly, therefore, the melody is clearly designed to convey the structure of the distich: every word is set to its own self-contained melodic segment, and in most cases these end with a descent either to the final f or to its upper 5th c', all with a more or less distinctively cadence-like figure. The sequence of melodic segments is not without direction. A double melodic arch is formed, rising from and returning to the final: the first arch, reaching its peak at f', constitutes the hexameter, and the second, with its peak on d', the pentameter. The lengths of the two verse lines are therefore related to the height of the melodic arches. At the same time, both verse lines end on the final, and the central caesuras of the hexameter and the pentameter are clearly marked by similar cadential figures. Thus the textual form of the elegiac distich is strongly brought out by the music, although this is achieved without regard to syntax or meaning. The melody continues over successive words that do not belong together, and sense units such as ‘redimitum munere’ (‘crowned with the gift’) are split up by cadences. In this example, however, the word order is so complex that whatever the arrangement of the melodic cadences the text could not be divided up any more meaningfully or clearly. A contrasting case is illustrated in ex.6, where a similar melody is set to a more straightforward text in rhymed prose: here melodic units correspond closely to sense units.
There appear to have been different reasons for the coexistence of Office melodies that closely follow the verse form of their texts (as also found in hymn melodies) and those that effectively neutralize that form. Genre may have been a determining factor: antiphons were more likely to have the melodic characteristics of hymns than the more elaborate responsories (or responsory verses set to the standardized tone); moreover, hymn strophes, along with Sapphic stanzas, pairs of hexameters and elegiac distichs, were of more or less the right length to be used as antiphons. On the other hand, since antiphons were sung before and after passages of straightforward psalmody, even hymn-like (i.e. moderately elaborate) antiphon settings would only be used in order to achieve a contrast in musical idiom between the psalmody and its ‘frame’. Another factor might have been verse form: iambic dimeters and trochaic septenarii are more common forms in the hymn repertory and were therefore more likely to be set to hymn-like melodies than were hexameters or elegiac distichs.
MGG1 (‘Reimoffizium’; W. Irtenkauf)
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