(Fr.: ‘melody’).
The term usually applied to 19th- and early 20th-century romantic French song, particularly in its later stages. Its link to an earlier form, the romance (see Romance, §3(i)), is so close that the two cannot be considered in isolation. Both terms were sometimes applied to the same song, and the songs of Schubert, partly responsible for the transformation of the romance into the more sophisticated mélodie, were sometimes called German romances by French critics. At the end of the 19th century the term ‘romance’ was still in currency, in the songs of no less than Chabrier. As this interchange of terminology implies, there are no firm boundaries; common to both, and deriving from the simple romance, is the quality of graceful, tender lyricism.
Just as the lied owed much of its inspiration to romantic German lyric poetry, so the 19th-century mélodie was indebted to the rising school of French romantic poetry headed by Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Musset and others. The texts set ranged from poetry of passionate utterance to that of domestic sentimentality, while the French literary fascination with orientalism and the exotic also found an outlet in song. Yet if romantic poetry was the inspiration for composers for some three-quarters of a century, that of the ‘symbolists’ Baudelaire, Verlaine and Mallarmé was the inspiration for many later composers, particularly Debussy. The mélodie reached its finest and most original expression in the songs of Fauré, Duparc and Debussy. While the earlier repertory contains many ephemera destined for the salons, it also includes a sizable number of fine but now neglected works. They established those characteristics of French art-song that are still evident in the more familiar songs of the later repertory and to a certain extent even in some of those of the 20th century.
DAVID TUNLEY (with FRITS NOSKE)
The seeds of the mélodie lie in the romance, a form characterized by simplicity, symmetrical phrasing, bland harmonies and simple keyboard accompaniment, often an Alberti bass. It was essentially strophic in form and its chief interest lay in the vocal line. Unlike the operatic aria, the romance avoided bravura and ornamentation, depending instead upon lyrical charm and sensitive performance. While its champions were fond of tracing the origins of the romance as far back as medieval times, in reality its style belonged to the late 18th-century Classical period.
The re-establishment of the Parisian salons after the Revolution and First Empire gave an impetus to the composition and performance of romances, which were ideally suited to these intimate surroundings, and especially to those salons of the rising bourgeoisie where taste and wealth were not necessarily in the same proportions. From the 1820s onwards, hundreds of sentimental romances were written year after year until well into the second half of the century. The best-known composers were Auber (who incorporated his later romances into his operas), Garat, Blangini, Plantade, Amadée de Beauplan, Sophie Gail, Loïsa Puget, Auguste Panseron, Frédéric Bérat, Auguste Morel, Pauline Duchambge and Henri Romagnesi. Among their works, particularly those of Morel, Duchambge and Romagnesi, may be found some quite charming pieces. A number of romance composers were also singers, and indeed Fétis claimed that success in the genre depended not only upon prolific output, but also upon the composer's ability to perform his latest creation in the salons.
Henri Romagnesi (1781–1850), singer, romance composer and teacher, listed various categories of romance in his L'art de chanter les romances, les chansonettes et les nocturnes et généralement toute la musique de salon (1846). His most important category was the romance sentimentale, followed by the chant héroïque, romance passionnée et dramatique, chansonette and the two-voice nocturne. Those that he said recalled German lieder were the mélodies rêveuses et graves, which called for stronger harmony and more complex accompaniments.
The first composers to inject greater originality into the romance were Berlioz and Hippolyte Monpou. It may well have been Berlioz's settings of nine texts (in translation) by Thomas Moore, the Neuf mélodies (later called Irlande) published in 1830, that gave rise to the French term ‘mélodie’. The settings, some for solo voice and some for ensemble, mostly retain the strophic form and simple lyricism of the romance. In the declamatory, through-composed Elégie en prose (no.9), however, some of the characteristics of Berlioz's personal style are evident, and this song, so remarkable for the period, looks ahead to his most important mélodies, in Les nuits d'été (1841). These songs, based on poems from Gautier's La comédie de la mort, are notable for their daring phrase structure and often declamatory style. The vocal part and accompaniment are linked by the shared use of germinal motifs, and original harmonic combinations and strong dissonances evoke the deep emotions of the text. Monpou's first romances appeared at the same time as those of Berlioz. Although they are harmonically very simple, some, such as L'Andalouse (1830) and Gastibelza, le fou de Tolède (1840), broke away from the symmetry and rhythmic regularity of the sentimental romance and display a vivacity and verve new to the genre. Monpou was also the first to set the poetry of Musset and Hugo, whose verses were to be set more frequently than any others during the 19th century.
More influential than the innovations of Berlioz and Monpou, however, were the French songs of Louis Niedermeyer and the songs of Schubert (published in translation), which created a wide recognition among serious French composers that song-writing could offer artistic possibilities beyond those of the conventional romance. Niedermeyer's setting of Lamartine's elegiac Le lac, composed in Geneva and published in Paris shortly after his arrival there, inspired many French composers to write songs of a more expansive and artistic nature than the traditional romance. Saint-Saëns believed that it marked out the path for Gounod and later composers (see Saint-Saëns's introduction to Niedermeyer, 1892). The influence of Niedermeyer's operatic writing is clear in this song: the first half is declamatory in style, rather like measured recitative, while the second is purely lyrical. The strophic lyrical section, however, is in the romance rather than the aria tradition, its accompaniment simple and flowing, its melody gentle and touching, its harmony unforced yet warm. The expansiveness that comes from bringing together declamatory and lyrical elements is also found in some of Niedermeyer's later songs, such as L'isolement, L'automne and La voix humaine. Yet in a number of his songs the declamatory element is absent; these, with their strophic form and emphasis on graceful melody, remain firmly in the romance tradition, now enriched with Romantic harmony.
This increased emphasis on harmonic warmth and more interesting accompaniments also sprang from the vogue for Schubert's songs in Paris from the 1830s onwards. By 1840 the publisher Richault had issued separately some 270 songs by Schubert, all in translation, before embarking upon a new ‘complete’ edition; other Parisian publishers also produced editions of his most popular lieder. Many of Schubert's songs were first performed in Paris by the operatic tenor Adolphe Nourrit, followed by others including François Wartel and Pauline Viardot. Among other composers active during this period was Giacomo Meyerbeer, who drew on his skills as a virtuoso pianist and an opera composer to impart a greater degree of vocal and pianistic brilliance to the mélodie. His 52 songs, composed during the 1830s and 40s deserve to be better known.
With the establishment of the mélodie as a genre to be taken seriously (although in opera-dominated Paris it was always regarded as a minor form) there developed a published repertory to which almost all leading composers contributed. Some were dubbed ‘French Schuberts’, merely because their songs were more demanding and original than the salon-destined romance. One such composer was Henri Reber, some of whose songs (such as Au bord du ruisseau, Stances and Mignon) show the marked influence of Schubert and illustrate very clearly the transformation of romance into mélodie. Another was Félicien David, although here the influence of the German lied is less obvious than with Reber. David's reputation, in fact, largely rested upon his symphonic-ode Le désert (1844), which included in one of its movements an Arabian melody which he also published separately as a solo song with piano accompaniment. A number of his other songs were also influenced by his time in the Middle East, such as Le bedouin, Le tchibouk and Sultan Mahmoud, but the absence of orchestral colour lessens the oriental or exotic flavour that was such a feature of Le désert. Most of his songs are merely pleasantly lyrical in the ‘European’ style, although he also achieved a powerful utterance in the dramatically tragic song Le jour des morts to words by Lamartine.
Other mélodie composers of this period include Victor Massé, among whose songs is a collection of settings of Renaissance texts, Chants d'autrefois (1849). Texts by Auguste Brizeux inspired by Breton culture were the basis of a delightful collection, Chants bretons (1853), composed in a simple folk-song like manner. However, it was in his later songs that the promise of his early years was amply fulfilled, particularly in his setting of Alfred de Musset's Adieux à Suzon. Ernest Reyer, like Félicien David, was drawn to musical exoticism, and this is reflected in some of his 31 mélodies. Nevertheless, his most effective ones are those in a more conservative style, such as Pourquoi ne m'aimez-vous and Les gouttes de pluie. The early songs of Edouard Lalo were indistinguishable from the typical romances of the 1830s. Even his settings of six poems by Béranger, whose chansons were the voice of social conscience and might have provoked a powerful musical response, give no hint of the imaginative writing that was to come with his settings of Hugo. Songs from this set, such as L'aube naît, are among the finest of the Romantic repertory. Influenced by Schubert and Schumann, Lalo's mélodies were the first to be performed in Germany. They are notable for their elaborate piano accompaniments and their success in conveying the atmosphere of a lyrical text and covering a wide range of human emotions, although they reject the opportunity offered by certain texts to exploit local colour. Lalo's technical procedures include ingenious rhythmic and harmonic inventions, and declamatory melodic writing close to arioso or recitative. He foreshadowed Chabrier in his introduction of humour and cheerfulness into the mélodie. Liszt and Wagner also contributed to the genre. Liszt's dozen or so mélodies remained virtually ignored until the end of the century, probably because of the demands they make on performer and public. His best examples show the influence of the German lied. Oh! quand je dors, one of his best French songs, has a profound unity, matching the rich imagery of Hugo's poems and penetrating its subtlety of thought. His last mélodie, Tristesse, composed in 1872 to Alfred de Musset's poem, is more a declamatory lied, almost a recitative, following the delicate nuances of the words and with some passages left unaccompanied. Wagner wrote six French songs in Paris in winter 1839–40, to poems by Hugo, Ronsard, Béranger and Heine; Mignonne in particular shows a French flavour and leans towards the traditional romance style.
The dominant figures in French music at this time were three composers whose prolific output included mélodies: Gounod, Massenet and Saint-Saëns. Gounod's songs include some of the loveliest and freshest of the 19th-century repertory, such as the well-known Sérénade,but he was also the victim of his extraordinary facility, which often led to superficiality and sentimentality (as well as religiosity). In his youthful career he frequently sang his own songs in the salons, which doubtless contributed to their notable feeling for vocal line. Some of Saint-Saëns's finest songs were written early in his career, and some (La cloche, La mort d'Orphélie, L'attente) reveal a fascination with the beauty of sound and harmonic effects that were to be features of later developments in the mélodie. These early songs show a poetic sensitivity not generally credited to him, and the wide intervals in the melodic line and the lyrical atmosphere pervaded with feelings of intimate warmth, nostalgia and deep emotion (as in Rêverie) reveal the influence of Schubert and Schumann. Saint-Saëns's talent for the humorous and picturesque is displayed in such works as Le pas d'armes du Roi Jean (1852), and the collection of Mélodies persanes (1870) reflects the vogue for orientalism, although the archaic modal harmonies, monotonous rhythms and extended melismas used to convey it are not original. Among the varied songs written after 1885 the contemplative mélodies are the strongest, but they lack the sensitivity of his youthful works. Like most French composers in the middle of the 19th century, Massenet was deeply influenced by Gounod and shared his desire to please the public. His was a prolific output of songs that ranged from the suave and delightful, such as A Mignonne, which perfectly unites romance and mélodie, to deeply felt works such as the song cycle – he was the first in France to write true song cycles – Poème du souvenir (to texts by one of his favourite poets, Armande Silvestre). Massenet must be credited with freeing the mélodie from the square phrase, introducing a sort of musical prose that is analogous to the free verse written by contemporary poets. In his songs, voice and piano become interdependent: often one completes a phrase begun by the other, the piano sometimes connects two unaccompanied vocal phrases, or the principal melody appears in the piano while the voice ‘declaims’. Massenet in turn influenced younger composers, including Debussy. A virtuoso pianist who contributed some fine mélodies was Louis Lacombe; described by their composer as ‘lieder’, they were regarded by contemporary critics as serious, indeed ‘severe’, examples of the new trends. The 22 mélodies of César Franck are uneven in quality, particularly in their rhythmic setting of the text, but show interesting or even daring harmonies. Franck's importance to this history of the mélodie lies, rather, in his role as a teacher, notably of Henri Duparc (see §3 below), whose compositions helped make the mélodie one of the important genres in French music.
The period of what might be called ‘romantic’ French songs, as distinct from the final stage of mélodie in the hands of Fauré, Duparc, Debussy and others, also saw a considerable outpouring of songs from Georges Bizet. These reveal a lyrical style in which each phrase is finely placed to make its effect both structurally and vocally, while harmonically some catch the exotic flavour associated with his most famous opera. Délibes published only 29 songs, yet they include some of the best-known of the repertory, such as Bonjour Suzon and Chanson espagnole (sometimes called Les filles de Cadix). Like Gounod and Bizet, he used folk elements in rhythm, melody and harmony to depict exotic settings. His melodic lines are simple and graceful and his structures clear and often schematic (using, for example, rondo or ternary form). Like Délibes, Théodore Weckerlin and Ernest Chausson contributed some fine songs to the repertory without changing the course of its development. Chausson's Quatre mélodies op.8 (1882–8), for instance, display hints of impressionist harmony, while his last song, Chanson perpétuelle (1898) for voice and orchestra or piano quintet, is a masterpiece, expressing a fin de siècle spirit. On the other hand, while Alexis Castillon wrote only six songs his settings of poems by Armande Silvestre anticipate something of the sense of mystery and regret that was to be such a feature of the final phase of romantic mélodie.
French mélodie in the closing decades of the century is best known by the songs of Fauré, Duparc and Debussy. All three began by composing in the romance style of Gounod and Massenet, but in their mature songs imparted a new and distinctive character to French song, partly by harmonic innovations (especially in Debussy's songs) and partly by a suppleness of melodic line that caught the nuances of the text with extraordinary sensitivity. The transformation of the romance into the mélodie is most easily traced in the 105 songs of Gabriel Fauré, who by the 1880s was producing songs of great originality and passionate beauty, such as L'automne, Fleur jetée, Notre amour and Clair de lune. Some of his later songs are of a more austere but no less beautiful nature, his song cycle La bonne chanson (1894) being noted for its use of recurrent themes and for the narrative arrangement of its texts (by Verlaine). Despite the diversity of textual choices, Fauré's style remained constant, characterized by a balanced melodic line, correct but not pedantic declamation, a preference for the middle voices (mezzo-soprano and baritone), moderate harmonic tension involving mediant relationships, and flexible structure. During his last 20 years Fauré wrote four song cycles (La chanson d'Eve, Le jardin clos, Mirages and L'horizon chimérique) in which his restrained lyricism is expressed with extreme refinement. Both the vocal line, with its limited range and small intervals, and the harmonic subtleties of the piano part sustain the intimacy of these late works. The approximately 100 songs Fauré contributed to the repertory may be the most quintessentially French ever written; his influence on the younger generation, including Ravel, was considerable. The 13 published songs by Duparc were composed between 1868 and 1884, and although they catch much of the mood and colour of the later mélodie, their style lies closer to the central European tradition, some, like Le manoir de Rosemonde, being in the tradition of the ballad. Duparc's Cinq mélodies op.2 (1869) show the influence of Gounod in the arpeggios and subtle syncopations, of Liszt in the juxtaposition of distant chords, and of the young Wagner in the appoggiaturas and chromaticisms. These features reappear in Duparc's later songs, many of which express profound melancholy. His vocal lines are intensely expressive, often using augmented intervals, but it is in the piano part, full of dissonant non-harmonic notes and rhythmic complications, that the essence of Duparc's style lies; harmonically he went far beyond the clear triadic arpeggios of his predecessors. The use of sequences of unrelated chords is carried to an extreme in his last mélodie, La vie antérieure (1884), for voice and orchestra, a setting of a text by Baudelaire.
It was in his settings of Verlaine in the 1880s that Debussy began producing songs of a highly individual kind. The six songs in Ariettes, paysage belges et aquarelles (1888, republished in 1903 as Ariettes oubliées) contain many of the elements of his characteristic style, including chains of parallel chords enriched with clusters of 7ths and 9ths and harmonic relationships that defied traditional practice and created new worlds of sound and sensation. Thus, unhampered by considerations of previous tonal procedures such as sequence and harmonic rhythm, Debussy’s melodies move with a freedom that catches the subtlety of the text in a new way. The Cinq poèmes de Baudelaire (1890) are his most complex songs, influenced by his early interest in Wagner. His later songs, such as the two sets of Fêtes galantes (1891, 1904), are in a simpler yet powerfully evocative style. Despite the originality of the mature songs of Fauré, Duparc and Debussy and their extraordinary sensitivity to the nuances of the poetry they set, sometimes giving the impression of measured recitative, they are linked to the French Romantic song tradition through their shapely vocal lines and Gallic genius for suggesting so much in a single stroke.
The songs of Emmanuel Chabrier, even his late ones such as Villanelle des petits canards, Ballade des gros dindons and Pastorale des cochons roses from his Six mélodies (1890), also reveal their French lineage. Through their humour and satire they look ahead to the ‘anti-Romantic’ style of the next century; in their strophic form and simple style, however, they bear the hallmarks of the early romance. While Ravel wrote relatively few songs (some of which were in song cycles with orchestral or ensemble accompaniment), all reflect the closest affinity between text and music, achieved through the composer's wide musical resources and his sensitivity to literature. Nowhere is this better illustrated than in his Histoires naturelles (1906), settings of ‘free verses’ by Jules Renard in which traditional lyricism gives way (particularly through the influence of Musorgsky and Debussy) to a quasi-recitative or declamatory style, which in performance, the composer claimed, should give the impression that one is almost not singing. No matter what influences were at work in his songs (including atonality in the last of the Trois poèmes de Stéphane Mallarmé (1913)), Ravel's style is unmistakeably personal and French. Among other early 20th-century French songwriters, Jean Rivier, in settings ranging from 16th-century poems (1945) to Apollinaire (1925–6, 1934–5), showed fine craftsmanship, an approachable style and beautifully singable vocal lines. Albert Roussel combined many different influences – Impressionism, neo-classicism, d'Indy, German composers, oriental music – in a wide range of highly individual songs. Florent Schmitt's songs achieve a distinctive synthesis of German and French sympathies. Georges Migot, in his ‘vocal chamber music’, sometimes to his own texts, used original polyphonic textures with decorative and striking effect. At the time of her early death in 1918, Lili Boulanger was already following her own lyrical path; her cycle Clairières dans le ciel is an important achievement in French song.
Poulenc's style, in contrast to Ravel's, was purely lyrical. From his settings of six poems from Apollinaire's Le bestiaire (1918–19), which catch something of the simplicity of the early romance, to some of his more demanding later songs, his love of the pure line marks Poulenc as heir to French mélodie. Nevertheless, his propensity to remind us of the salon and café when it suits him also marks him as a man of his time. Humour, satire and derision of Romantic ideals is, of course, to be expected from a number of the songs of Poulenc's colleagues in Les Six. The superficial gaiety, however, often masked deeper feelings, as in many of the songs of Poulenc and Milhaud. Poulenc's style was a surrealistic mixture of contradictory elements, for he drew inspiration as easily from 16th-century polyphony as from contemporary popular song and the music hall, and the influence of Chabrier, Ravel and Stravinsky contrasts in his mélodieswith passages of Schumann-like dreaminess or classical detachment. Milhaud also brought together the most diverse elements – jazz, polytonality, folksong, harmonic and contrapuntal freedom – in his predominantly lyrical songs. There is genuine poignancy in Alissa (1913), a beautifully flexible and expressive vocal style in Quatre chansons de Ronsard (1940), and an intimate and passionate assertion of personal religious feeling in the justly admired Poèmes juifs (1916). Of the other composers of Les Six, Auric, like Satie, found inspiration in popular music; much is trivial, but his Six poèmes de Paul Eluard (1941) and Quatre chants de la France malheureuse (1943) show a composer of intelligence and real depth of feeling.
The satire and anti-Romantic, anti-Impressionist ideals of Les Six are absent from the songs of the composer who towers over 20th-century French music, Olivier Messiaen. His song cycles Poèmes pour Mi (1936, also with orchestra, 1937), Chants de terre et de ciel (1938) and Harawi (1945), employing all the techniques that contributed to his highly individual style, led French song into a contemplation of the spiritual values that influenced so much of his work. Technically demanding for both singer and pianist, Messiaen's highly complex songs nevertheless convey through the flowing beauty of their lines the lyricism that seems to lie at the heart of French song. Among other 20th-century composers, Henri Sauguet's song cycle Cirque (1925) shows the direct influence of Satie, and Henry Barraud's settings of Hugo (1935) explore neo-classical style; Jean Françaix, with his lightness and polish, seems to personify the Gallic spirit in Adolescence Clémentine (1941), while his Charles d'Orleans songs (1946) evoke 17th-century courtly music. Of the three composers who, with Messiaen, founded the group ‘La Jeune France’ in the mid-1930s to counter the neo-classicism prevailing in Paris, the songs of Daniel-Lesur and Yves Baudrier developed a more spontaneous lyrical quality, while those of André Jolivet display a magical incantatory style. Later 20th-century French songs became ever more eclectic, and 12-note techniques were extended to athematic serialism.
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