Country in Central Asia. The Kazakhs are a Turkic-speaking people who inhabit a vast area of 3000 km2 from east (the Altai mountains) to west (the Caspian Sea) and 2000 km2 from north (the southern Urals) to south (Tien Shan); 2.7 million km2 in total. In 1991 the Kazakhs numbered approximately 10 million people, of which 6,797,000 lived in the Kazakh Republic, 1,665,000 in republics of the former USSR and 1,535,000 in other countries. The percentage of Kazakhs in the Republic's population reached 53.4% in 1999. Russians, Ukrainians, Germans, Koreans, Uighurs, Uzbeks, Tartars and others (there are about a hundred ‘nationalities’) also live in the Republic, whose total population is estimated at 16.93 million in 2000.
5. Transitional music during the Soviet period.
6. Opera, orchestral and chamber music.
ALMA KUNANBAYEVA (1–5), SAIDA ELEMANOVA (6)
Until the gradual annexation to Russia, completed by the mid-19th century, Kazakh musical culture was that of nomadic pastoralists, who migrated widely across steppeland in seasonal movements. Living in the transportable round felt tent or the yurt, their traditional musical genres were embedded in rituals of hospitality as well as annual and life-cycle rituals. Their music was influenced by the structure of society and by their religious complexes.
Originating in this nomadic past, Kazakh society is divided into three Zhuzs (Hordes): Uly (Greater), Orta (Middle) and Kishi (Lesser). Each is distinguished territorially: the Greater zhuz is located in the south-east of contemporary Kazakhstan, the Middle zhuz in central Kazakhstan and the Lesser zhuz in western Kazakhstan. Each zhuz is divided into clans and families who follow exogamous rules of marriage.
Co-existing religious complexes include folk-religion, shamanism and Islam. Folk-religious beliefs include worship of Tengri (Heaven) as the male life-source, Jer-Su (Earth-Water) as the female life-source, and Umai as the patroness of fertility and childbirth. Shamanism (baqsylyk), which found expression through musicians, healers and diviners, exerted a basic influence on all aspects of Kazakh musical culture, especially on the role of epic bard. Towards the end of the 10th century, Islam became firmly established among the settled inhabitants (in Semirechy and by the river Syr Darya) in the south of modern Kazakhstan. During the 16th century the Kazakhs became Sunnite Muslims of the hanafit tendency (Mazhab). In southern Kazakhstan Sufism is also known in connection with the worship of Hoja Ahmed Yasawi (1103–67).
Despite sparse settlement in different regions of the country, Kazakhs share common linguistic, cultural and material characteristics. Traditional vocal genres may be divided into women's music, which is closely linked to ceremonies and rituals, and performed unaccompanied, and men's music, which is accompanied by the performer's own instrument. The master–apprentice training system, performance skills and high social status of the male musician-singer or instrumentalists indicates the professionalism of oral culture.
Women perform songs during ceremonies and in non-formal situations. They do not usually use instrumental accompaniment.
These include wedding songs (tanysu), such as the popular ‘Zhar-Zhar’ (performed antiphonally by a male and female chorus); brides' laments (synsu); farewell songs (koshtasu); ritual songs, such as those performed to begin a festival (toi bastar) or to unveil the face of the bride (betashar); laments at funerals and annual funeral remembrances (as-joktau, daus), messenger-songs of death (yestirtu) and condolence (konil-aitu, jubatu); and calendar songs such as carols (jarapapzan) or songs performed during the fasting at Ramadan. Ceremonial songs are not conceptualized as ‘song’ but are specified according to function as outlined above.
Lyrical or ‘simple songs’ (qara öleng) are not performed in ceremonial contexts. These take the form of song-poem dialogues (qayim öleng), improvisations about guests at parties (bokyet-öleng) or an exchange of song riddles (jumbak-öleng). They have a typical verse form of eleven syllables, that is, 4 + 3 + 4 or 3 + 4 + 4, which are combined in two four-line verses.
For Kazakhs, epics comprise their history, literature and philosophy. Traditionally the zhyrau, or epic bard, had special social status: he was a consultant to the khan, a keeper of the people's history, and he took over certain functions of the shaman, such as the establishment of relations between generations and the expression of ethnic identity. Epics transmitted information about the history of the ethnic group, its cultural traditions and social structure in a ritual and emotionally-charged context.
Lengthy heroic epics (batyrlar zhyry) such as ‘Kyor-ogly’, ‘Alpamïs’ and ‘Yedigye’ form the core of the epic tradition, versions of which are famous all over the Turkic-speaking world. Also part of the tradition are sung tales such as ‘Oraq-Mamai’, ‘Qarasai-Qazi’ and ‘Shora batyr’. These are full of legendary figures and their deeds, and often include extensive family genealogies, which are carefully passed down from generation to generation, and stories about particular families. ‘Lyrical’ or ‘social-life’ epics form another large category. These are usually named after the main female characters (‘Kyz-Zhibyek’, ‘Sulushash’ and ‘Maqpalqyz’) or lovers (‘Qozy Qorpyesh-Bayan Sulu’).
Performances are regulated by ‘schools’ of highly-developed oral traditional skills transmitted by the ‘tutor–pupil’ system. These schools have regional peculiarities. In addition to such musical skills, the bard is also believed to have magical powers. The vocal timbre he uses differentiates his epic performance from that of song. It is reminiscent of the sounds produced by the qobuz, a two-string fiddle used by shamans. His intonation is similar to dramatically saturated oratorical speech.
Epics usually contain three main sections: a preface or ‘initial’ section (bastau); a central recitation, based on a measured rhythmic intonation which tends to multiple repetitions (uzyn sanar, meaning literally a ‘long pursuit’ or ‘hunt’); and a conclusion (qaiyrma or ‘turning point’, i.e. the conclusive break when recitation of a text is replaced by jubilation without a text). This final section is usually performed at a slower tempo in order to break the vocal pulse of the preceding section.
Verses are formed by an indefinite number of lines joined by one rhyme (tirade). A tirade allows an unspecified number of variant repetitions of its separate elements and may be followed by improvised vocalisations (see ex.1).
Traditionally, epics must be accompanied by the dömbra. Many short narrative songs are related to epics (zhyr) and often occur within them. These include terme (‘string’), tolgau (‘meditation’), osiyet (‘exhortation’); naqyl soz (‘words of edification’), arnau (‘dedication’), khat (‘letter’), maqtau (‘praise-song’). During bastau-en (‘preface songs’), which usually precede the performance of long sung tales, the narrator calls for inspiration and addresses the audience with the list of legends he knows. Similarly, in tanysu the narrator introduces himself and in tandatu, he suggests that the audience chooses the most desirable items from his great repertory.
The aqyn or poet-singer was traditionally a professional performer who participated in contests (aitys). Like the zhyrau, the aqyn gained his gift in miraculous ways and had a famous akyn from the past as a guardian who instructed him in dreams. An aitys (literally, ‘to talk together’) usually comprises a dialogue contest between two or more poet-singers. Contests occurred during festivals, banquets and other social gatherings which sometimes lasted until long after midnight. According to custom, the defeated party had to recall the whole aitys by heart.
There are many varieties of aitys, for instance, qyz ben zhigit aityssy (‘aitys between a girl and a youth’), din aityssy (‘religious aitys’), zhumbak aityssy (‘aitys riddles’), and aqyndar aityssy (‘aitys between akyns’). The aqyndar aityssy involved demonstrations of skills ranging from a restricted body of knowledge, such as geography (tau olen, zher olen, su olen), to improvisation contests at weddings (kaim olen). There were three important conditions (excluding the obligation to have professional skills) for the participants of contests: representatives of the same clan and those who were related on their fathers' sides must not compete; each participant had to praise his clan and criticize the clan of his rival; and appeals not normally ethically allowable were allowed during the contest.
Poetical dialogue was also used in charms (badik) or in children's songs (e.g. debates between goats and sheep).
Lyrical songs performed by professional singers (anshi, sal, syeri) flourished between the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th centuries.
The central Kazakhstan region of Saryaki (‘golden steppe’) is particularly noted for its lyrical songs (Amirova, 1990). The most famous singers of the Arkin school are Akhan Syerye Koramsinuly (1843–1913), Birjan-sal Kojagululy (1831–94), Zhayau Musa Baizhanuly (1835–1929), Ibrai Sandybaiuly (1860–1932), Muhit Myeraliuly (1841–1918), Madi Bapiuly (1880–1921), Asyet Naimanbay-uly (1867–1922) and Yestai Byerkyenbay-uly (1874–1946). Amre Kashaubay-uly (1888–1934) became widely known even outside Kazakhstan; he successfully performed at two World Exhibitions of the decorative arts (Paris, 1925 and Frankfurt, 1927). 20th-century followers of the great singer-composers of the past include Manarbyek Yerzhanov (1901–66), Zhusubyek Yelyebyekov (1904–77) and Zhanibyek Karmyenov (1949–92).
Lyrical songs frequently begin with a protracted and high-pitched opening cry; both descending and arch-like melodic contours are characteristic. Refrains, sung with vocables rather than words, demonstrate the vocal skills of the singer. The song structure is marked by variety and asymmetry in the interior parts of strophes (tunes and refrains) and possible incompatibility of musical boundaries and word lines. Professional singers are conscious of copyright, which they assert in a number of ways, including giving the song a fixed title, indicating authorship in the first verse, and performing a tale about how the song was created as a preface to its performance. After such autobiographical beginnings, songs embrace a number of subjects including farewell songs (to youth, a lover, the homeland or life), and pronouncements about the art of singing and the beauty of songs.
These lyrical songs are accompanied by the dömbra. However, unlike those used by epic singers and performers of instrumental pieces (kyui), these dömbras have a small resonator, a relatively short neck with eleven frets, and are plucked (shertip oinau) rather than strummed.
Of many musical instruments from the past, only the shan-qobuz (jews' harp), sybyzgy (end-blown flute), qobuz (see Qobuz (i)) and dömbra were still in use at the beginning of the 20th century (Sarïbayev, 1978). The shan-qobuz is played mostly by women and the sybyzgy, 60 to 65 cm long and made from an umbellate plant stalk or from wood, is played by male herders and shepherds (see fig.2).
The two-string fiddle qobuz, played by shamans, was also linked with the epic tradition. One of the most distinguished composers and performers was Yqylas Dükenuly (1843–1916) whose instrumental pieces form the basic repertory of modern qobyz players.
The Dömbra is the most widely disseminated instrument among modern Kazakhs. The degree to which the instrument has become a symbol of Kazakh identity is illustrated by the dömbra headpiece of a Kazakh grave in West Mongolia (fig.3). There are two types of dömbra: the type characteristic of western Kazakhstan is pear-shaped and has a long thin finger-board with 12 to 14 frets. The second type, characteristic of south, central and eastern Kazakhstan, has a trapezium-shaped flat body (shanaq) and a short wide neck (moiyn) with between seven and nine frets. All perne (a term meaning both the frets and the notes produced when the frets are stopped), have their own traditional names which vary by region and performer. It is not rare for them to be named after the titles of pieces played on them, such as turkimen perne or saryaka pernesi. In the past the strings (shekter) were made of goat or sheep's gut but contemporary instruments are fitted with nylon or metal strings. Traditionally there were three and even four-string dömbras found, for instance, in Semypalatin province. The contemporary dömbra has a compass of two octaves.
The dömbra is used either as an accompaniment to singing or to perform instrumental pieces or kyui. Kyui (literally, ‘condition’, ‘state’, ‘mood’) is an instrumental poem, a programmatic work. The title of the kyui usually indicates the content of the instrumental narrative. However, its topic is traditionally also given by the performer or kyuishi, usually before its performance. The subject may be a legend or tale about the origin of the kyui. These legends represent a variety of oral tale or angime (Mukhambetova, 1985).
Two main types of kyui are known in Kazakhstan. In western Kazakhstan, the strings are strummed (tökpe, meaning literally, ‘stream’, ‘continuously pouring’) by upward and downward movements of the right hand, creating a musical texture that incorporates a continuous drone. In the seven provinces of Kokchetav, Pavlodar, Semipalatinsk, eastern Kazakhstan, Karagand, Zhezkazgan and Chimkent, the strings are plucked (shertpe, meaning literally, ‘plucking’, ‘flicking’, ‘touching the string’) by individual fingers, creating a melodic line without a drone.
After studying folk terminology, Bagdaulet Amanov (1944–76) suggested that the underlying structure of a kyui is as follows: an initial section or bas buyn (‘head articulation’); central sections or orta buyn; and two culminating sections, a small culmination (kishi saga) and a second great culmination (ülken saga) (see ex.2).
Tartys-kyui are instrumental dömbra pieces performed in contests, called aitys-kyuiler in Mangystau territory of western Kazakhstan (Utegaliyeva, 1997). There are three types of tartys (in this context meaning ‘to measure the strength’): those that measure performance skills; those that test compositional skills in relation to improvisation; and those that demonstrate compositional skills and memory. In the last of these, the performer must must remember and be able to play a new kyui after hearing it once. (Amanov in Mukhambetova, 1985)
Distinguished kyuishi in the tökpe tradition include Qurmanghazy Saghyrbaev (1818–89), dauletkerei Shigaev (1820–87), Qazanghap Tilepbergenuly (1834–1927), Espai Balustauly (1810–1901), Dina Nürpeisqyzy (1861–1955) and Seitek Orozalynuly (1861–1923). In the sherpte tradition, distinguished kyuishi include Tättimbet Qazanghapuly (1815–62), Sügir Äliuly (1882–1961), as well as Baizhigit, Toqa, and Dairabai.
Kazakh traditional culture experienced an enormous shock in the 1920s and 30s with the forced transition from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle under the pressure of Soviet ideology and rule. A cultural revolution was carried out that assumed the total primacy of European music (in particular the Russian classics of the 19th century), the summit of which were symphony and opera. The urbanization of culture, demographic loss (25% of Kazakhs were suppressed) and a policy of moving Russians into Kazakhstan changed the status of professional musicians of the oral tradition to the position of anonymous folklore, and deprived distinguished musicians not only of the opportunity of developing the tradition but also of physical existence. This cultural policy introduced European forms of art with ethnographic ‘decorations’. The policy proved successful and in 1934 led to the creation of the State Orchestra of folk instruments, named after Kurmangaya (organized and instructed by Ahmet Zhubanov) on European and Russian patterns. This necessitated the large-scale reconstruction of traditional instruments in accordance with symphonic orchestral types. In place of traditional solo performance, collective performance was introduced, which required performing in unison, breaking the tradition of improvised variations in instrumental kyui. When traditional master-performers were invited to participate in reorganized concerts, the connections between instrumental pieces and legends were cut out because they were incompatible with European concert forms.
Lyrical songs were reinterpreted as operatic arias and for a long period Kazakh ‘bel canto’ became representative of all Kazakh culture. Lyrical songs performed in this new style became aesthetically acclaimed and were employed more often than all other genres of traditional music culture.
The 1960s and 70s were a turning-point in the musical culture of Soviet Kazakhstan in connection with radical changes in the ethnic identity of the Kazakhs. During this period there was a revival of interest in their own culture, history and peculiarities. There were deeper studies of oral traditional music and an extension of the fieldwork possibilities for ethnomusicologists in the Republic. As a result, the second orchestra for folk instruments, ‘Otrar sazy’ was created in the 1980s. (From 1981 the director was Nurgisa Tlendiyev, a composer and dömbra-player). This orchestra includes a large number of ethnically specific, non-European instruments, such as the sybyzgy and saz-surnay or clay flute. This kind of collective performance became a model for many amateur ensembles.
During the 1990s youth groups developed, including those who fused the style and technique of rock and pop groups with Kazakh traditional music: for instance, the group ‘Roksonaky’ took the first prize at the International Festival ‘Asia Dausy’.
Contemporary folkloristics began in the 1920s. The publications of Aleksandr Zatayevich (1869–1936) have a continuing importance. Zatayevich wrote more than 2300 pieces of Kazakh folk music (not counting the musics of other nationalities inhabiting the Republic), and he published 1500 of them in two volumes during his lifetime (Zatayevich, 1925, 1931). Ahmet (1906–68) and Kudaibergen (1899–1938), the Zhubanovs, Boris Erzakovich (1908–97), Asiya Baigaskina (1928–99), and Bolat Sarïbayev (1927–84) laid down the foundations of modern Kazakh ethnomusicology.
After the October Revolution of 1917, in keeping with the cultural policies of the Soviet state, Kazakhstan had to develop a single musical culture that was ‘socialist in content and national in form’. The bases of this culture were the European harmonic system and genres that had been assimilated in Imperial Russia by the early 20th century. It was obligatory to retain a ‘national’ element but this was interpreted primarily as an external, decorative and exotic attribute.
Professional composers were invited to work in Kazakhstan, including graduates of the Leningrad and Moscow conservatories: Yevgeny Grigor'yevich Brusilovsky, Vasily Velikanov, Mikhail Ivanov-Sokol'sky. The appearance of the first significant works of opera, ballet and the symphony are associated with them. The development of choral, instrumental and symphonic music in Kazakhstan was inspired by the first Kazakh operas by Brusilovsky, Kïz-Zhibek and Er-Targïn (the names of epic heroes). These works, staged in 1934 and 1937, make extensive use of traditional songs and instrumental pieces known as kyui (see §4 above). The operas were written as a result of the creative interaction between the composer and traditional musicians who were the performers of these operatic roles. These works reflected the innate ‘theatricality’ of traditional Kazakh musical culture, and the artistry of professional Kazakh songs that became the basis for their vocal presentation. The arrangements and orchestral episodes are characterized by extreme economy, while the choral parts are performed predominantly in unison and occasionally in two parts. This ‘birth’ of Kazakh opera introduced the local listening public to European genres and forms, to the orchestra, the chorus and the ballet.
and other resources
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for a list of LP discs see Zemtsovsky 1991, 41–9
Music of Kazakhstan, i: Songs Accompanied on Dömbra and Solo Kobyz, King records [Japan] KICC 5166 (1992)
Mongolie: chants Kazakhs et tradition épique de l'Ouest, perf. A. Desjacques, Ocora 558 660 (1993)
Music of Kazakhstan, ii: Dömbra Music of Kazakhstan and Songs Accompanied on Dömbra, King records [Japan] KICC 5199 (1995)
Kirghizes et Kazakhs: mâitres du komuz et du dombra, Ocora/Radio France C560121 (1997)