Modern definitions of ‘liturgy’ tend to be either juridical-ritual or theological. Most of the juridical-ritual definitions of the liturgy framed by Roman Catholic authors emphasize that the liturgy is the public and officially approved worship offered to God by the Church. Juridicial definitions thus separate ‘liturgy’ from other manifestations of piety, whether private or public, and from ‘paraliturgical’ accretions (e.g. tropes), which never received formal ecclesiastical approval. Theological definitions of ‘liturgy’, while recognizing its character as signs perceptible to the senses, seek a more profound understanding of its nature. The liturgy not only praises and worships God in recognition of his transcendence and in thanksgiving for creation and salvation, but it also acts as the channel through which God bestows his grace on humanity.
I. History and definition of liturgy
The Latin translations of the scriptures did not adopt the Greek term directly but rendered it as ministerium, munus etc. Medieval authors in the Latin West most often employed terms such as officium (adj. officialis), ritus or mysterium when writing about the Church’s worship.
Not until the 16th century (and under the influence of humanism) did the term ‘liturgy’ come into vogue. Pamelius published a treatise entitled Liturgia latinorum (1571), and Cardinal Bona’s influential Rerum liturgicarum libri duo followed in 1671. The growing acceptance of the term in the 17th century is further attested in De liturgia gallicana (1685) by the Benedictine historian Jean Mabillon. In the 20th century the reform of Roman Catholic worship and prayer approved by the Second Vatican Council (1962–5) was preceded by what has been called the ‘liturgical movement’.
III. Reformation and post-Reformation liturgical books
JOSEPH DYER (I–III), KENNETH LEVY/DIMITRI CONOMOS (IV)
The word ‘liturgy’ derives from the Greek leitourgia, formed from the combination of the adjective lēitos (‘state’, ‘public’) and the noun ergon (‘work’). In ancient Greece a leitourgia was the offering of financial support by private citizens for some activity in the public interest. Prosperous citizens could be obliged by law to perform a leitourgia, but the term also included spontaneous gestures of civic generosity. Thus one or more citizens might, for example, undertake the training and outfitting of a chorus for the theatre, the support of gymnastic events or the equipping of a ship in time of war. From the 3rd century bce the term began to embrace other kinds of work that provided a service, often remunerated, or any kind of useful activity. The office of priest, who mediated between the people and one of the gods, was also sometimes called a leitourgia, but outside Egypt cultic connotations of the word were not widespread.
The Jewish translators of the Septuagint (prepared in Egypt, c250–150 bce) adopted leitourgia (verb: leitourgein) as the normal word to describe the service (‘avodah) of priests and Levites in the Temple; by choosing a word with weak religious connotations any terminology associated with pagan cults was thus avoided. Jewish priests and Levites performed the public ‘service’ of prayer and sacrifice directed to God on behalf of their people, for whose subordinate role other words (latreuein, douleuein) were chosen.
This technical use of the term was carried over into the New Testament. The priest Zachary, father of John the Baptist, encountered an angel who predicted the birth of his son, and then departed from the Temple ‘when the days of his liturgy were fulfilled’ (Luke i.23). The Epistle to the Hebrews, rejecting the efficacy of Jewish Temple sacrifices, glorified Christ as the true high priest of a superior ‘liturgy’ (Hebrews viii.6, cf viii.2). The author contrasted Christ’s single offering of himself with the functions of an ordinary priest, who must perform his ‘liturgy’ daily (Hebrews x.11). In the New Testament ‘liturgy’ also continued to be applied in the broader sense to other forms of service. Paul called himself ‘a liturgist’ of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles’ (Romans xv.16) and described kindness towards himself as a ‘liturgy’ (Philippians ii.25, 30). He referred to a donation for Christians at Jerusalem as ‘the fellowship of this liturgy’ (2 Corinthians ix.12). Although the New Testament never related leitourgia to the nascent Christian cult, the word was taken up by the Greek-speaking Christian East to describe the ministry of the clergy in general, and was applied in particular to the eucharistic liturgy. In its celebration of the Eucharist the Eastern Church uses three principal ‘liturgies’: the Liturgy of St John Chrysostom, the Liturgy of St Basil the Great, and (on certain days during Lent and at the beginning of Holy Week) the Liturgy of the Presanctified.
1. Structure of the liturgy and its books.
4. Ritual and ceremonial books.
Liturgy & liturgical books, §II: Medieval Western rite
The two principal services of the medieval Western liturgy were the Mass and the Divine Office. The central element of the Mass is a memorial re-enactment of the Last Supper. This re-enactment was preceded by scripture readings and prayers, to which chants were later added. It culminated in the reception of bread and wine, believed to be in some real or mystical sense a sharing in the body and blood of Jesus. In cathedral churches and monasteries Mass was celebrated daily (several times in the case of churches with multiple altars) and with great solemnity on special feasts, but in smaller churches perhaps only on Sundays (see Mass, §I). The Divine Office consisted of a daily series of eight times of prayer devised around the weekly recitation of the Psalter. It also comprised readings from the scriptures, the writings of the Fathers, the legends of the saints on their feast-days, hymns, chants and prayers. The liturgical day began with Matins and ended with Compline. Lauds (earlier known as Matins) was sung at daybreak, followed by the Hours of Prime, Terce, Sext and None, recited at 6 a.m., 9 a.m., noon, and 3 p.m., respectively. During the Middle Ages it became customary to celebrate with special solemnity ‘first’ Vespers on the evening preceding major feasts. On Sundays, however, afternoon Vespers was the principal observance, and still a major liturgical event in Catholic churches up to the early 20th century (see Divine Office and related articles).
Both the Mass and the Divine Office contained prayers and chants that were recited or sung daily. Other components changed according to the liturgical day, season or feast. The fixed elements were known as the Ordinary – a term applied more frequently to the Mass than to the Office – while the latter was known as the Proper. The ‘Proper of the Time’ (Lat. Temporale) was organized around the liturgical year, which began on the first Sunday of Advent, four weeks before Christmas, and closed with the last Sunday of Pentecost. The Proper of the Time included what were known as ‘feasts of the Lord’, mainly commemorations of events in the life of Christ. Some of these, such as Christmas (25 December), Epiphany (6 January) and the Annunciation (25 March) fell on the same date every year. Most, however, were movable, notably those dependent upon the variable date of Easter. These included the season of Lent (40 days preceding Easter Sunday), the feasts of the Ascension (40 days after) and Pentecost (50 days after Easter). Sundays were numbered in relation to these major feasts: for example, the Second Sunday after Epiphany, the First Sunday after Easter, the Tenth Sunday after Pentecost (or after Trinity according to some customs).
The Proper of the Saints (Lat. Sanctorale) commemorated the feast-days of individual martyrs and saints celebrated on fixed dates of the calendar. Important observances, such as the Nativity of John the Baptist (24 June), the feasts of St Peter and St Paul (June 29), or the Assumption of the Virgin (15 August), were celebrated with greater solemnity than the commemorations of saints, about whom little was known. The Sanctorale varied to a certain extent from place to place and incorporated formularies for local feasts that were not universally observed. Formularies for saints of lesser rank were drawn from the Common of the Saints (Lat. Commune sanctorum), which furnished chants, readings and prayers for the several categories of saints: apostles, evangelists, martyrs, doctors, bishops, confessors, virgins etc. In liturgical books these formularies were grouped together at the end of the Sanctorale. Elaborate rules governed which feasts of the Temporale and Sanctorale took precedence in the event that two coincided on the same day. The medieval, as well as the modern Lutheran and Anglican practices, are more flexible than late 20th-century Catholic rules, which give exclusive precedence to Sundays.
The Temporale was based on solar and (to a lesser extent) lunar cycles, while the Sanctorale was based on the division of the year into 12 months. The fact that these two astronomical cycles did not coincide from year to year presented problems for the structure of liturgical books. The two cycles could be kept entirely separate – the solution of the 7th-century Gelasian Sacramentary – or blocks of sanctoral feasts could be dispersed among the observances of the Temporale. Efforts to date revisions of liturgical books by studying the relationships of the two cycles (Chavasse) remain problematical. The history and typology of medieval liturgical books are extremely complex subjects that have been clarified in a number of recent studies (Vogel, Palazzo, Folsom). Not only are there many different types of liturgical book, but every medieval liturgical manuscript contains a potentially unique combination of elements that must be studied individually. (For examples see Sources, MS, §II.)
The earliest liturgical manuscripts, designed to permit a single individual (priest, deacon, cantor) to discharge a specific role in the liturgy, contained only the texts proper to that role. Beginning in the 9th century efforts were made to combine and standardize these books, but compilers had not only to integrate their separate contents but also co-ordinate the overlapping Temporale and Sanctorale cycles. These books, of which the missal and the breviary are the best known examples, combined in a single volume all or most of the elements needed for specific Sundays, feasts or weekdays (feriae). Liturgical standardization, a goal of the 8th-century Carolingian reforms, entered a new phase with the growth of large monastic congregations such as those of Cluny and Cîteaux. It reached its apex with the international orders of mendicant friars – Dominicans and Franciscans – who created standard exemplaria that governed liturgical observances in all houses of the orders. The printing press enabled leaders of the Reformation movement to publish orders of worship that conformed to their theological perspectives. The Council of Trent (1545–63) likewise made use of the same technology to issue a series of standard liturgical books that determined the shape of the Catholic liturgy for centuries to come.
Liturgy & liturgical books, §II: Medieval Western rite
(from Lat. sacramentarium, liber sacramentorum). The book used by the officiating bishop or priest at the eucharistic liturgy. It contains the texts of the Proper prayers (collect, secret, post-Communion, Preface and Canon), together with a few other formulae (benedictions etc.) recited by the celebrant. In the earliest centuries of the Christian era bishops improvised their prayers at the Eucharist. Subsequently, these were written down and preserved in small collections known as libelli missarum. The earliest surviving Western collection of such texts, the Verona Sacramentary (also known as the Leonine Sacramentary after Pope Leo I, d 461; I-VEcap 85, early 7th century), is a collection of 5th- and 6th-century libelli from Rome. The collection is incomplete in some respects and redundant in others; there are, for example, 28 formularies for the feasts of St Peter and St Paul.
The most important complete sacramentaries of Roman origin are the Gelasian and Gregorian. The Gelasian (or ‘Old Gelasian’, named after Gelasius I, d 496; I-Rvat Reg.lat.316, c750) is thought to reflect the practice of the Roman tituli (parishes) in the mid-7th century (see Chavasse, 1952, 1989). It is divided into three books: (1) the Temporale and rites of ordination; (2) the Sanctorale; and (3) 16 Sunday Masses and votive Masses for various occasions. The Gelasian text was substantially revised in Francia in the mid-8th century, when it was augmented with material from the Gregorian Sacramentary and local Gallican formulae. This version is known as the ‘Frankish’ or ‘8th-century’ Gelasian Sacramentary. The Gregorian Sacramentary was originally a papal book designed for the stational liturgy (see Rome, §II, 1) and was probably compiled in the early 7th century. Its intermingling of material from the Temporale and Sanctorale was adopted in the 8th-century Gelasians. The Gregorian sacramentary itself exists in several forms, the earliest of which, known as the ‘Paduense’ (I-Pc D.47), represents (according to Chavasse, 1952) an adaptation of the sacramentary for the presbyteral liturgy of the Basilica di S Pietro, Rome. The purest witness of papal practice is the ‘Hadrianum’, a copy of the Gregorian Sacramentary sent to Charlemagne (d 814) at his request. This text had to be supplemented in order to make it a practical Mass book for the Frankish Church. The resulting Franco-Roman liturgy became the foundation of the ‘Roman’ rite.
Western Churches that did not follow a local rite (Mozarabic, Ambrosian) were usually dependent in varying degrees on Roman models. Studies of the grouping and interrelationships of sacramentaries may be found in Bourque, Vogel, and Metzger. From the 10th century sacramentaries began to incorporate readings and chant texts (or their incipits) interspersed among the celebrant’s prayers. These books eventually evolved into the missal (see below).
(from Lat. lectionarium). The book containing the extracts (pericopes) from the New Testament Epistles or the Hebrew scriptures and the Gospels read at Mass in the order of the liturgical year. Before their combination in a single book, the series of Epistle and Gospel readings were transmitted separately. Historical precursors of the full lectionary consisted of lists that provided only the beginning and end of each reading, the complete text of which would be sought in a biblical codex. Such a list is known as a capitulary (from Lat. capitulare, liber capitularius; for an explanation of terminology, see Klauser, 1935). Marginal indications in some Bibles indicate that they were used in conjunction with such lists, for example, the Gospel Book of St Kilian (D-WÜu M.p.th.q.1a), with 200 indications entered between the 7th and 9th centuries. Several regional lectionary traditions (Gaul, Capua) are found in early manuscripts. The earliest Epistle list representing Roman usage is the Würzburg Capitulary (WÜu M.p.th f.62, ff.2v–10) from about 700, which reflects urban practice of perhaps as much as a century before. The same manuscript (ff.10v–16v) also contains a Gospel list that documents a later stage of liturgical development (c645).
The term ‘epistolary’ (Lat. epistolare) refers to a book containing the full text of the pericopes drawn from the Epistles and Hebrew scriptures read at Mass. An ‘evangeliary’ (from Lat. evangelarium, evangeliarium) contains the complete text of the Gospel pericopes. Epistles and Gospels are combined for the first time in a single series in the Lectionary of Murbach (F-B 184) dating from the late 8th century. This capitulare represents a Frankish adaptation of a Roman lectionary. The solemn reading of the Gospel at Mass was a special prerogative of the deacon, and the book for this reading was sometimes richly illuminated and covered with a binding embellished with gold, silver and precious stones.
The gradual (from Lat. gradale, graduale, liber gradualis) contains the antiphonal and responsorial chants of the Mass together with votive Masses that stand outside the Temporale and Sanctorale; it may also contain chants for processions and other functions closely related to the eucharistic liturgy. The gradual is sometimes combined with a Kyriale containing chants for the Ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei), a Troper or a sequentiary (see Sequence (i)). The earliest extant graduals, which date from the 8th and 9th centuries (ed. R.-J. Hesbert, Antiphonale missarum sextuplex, Brussels, 1935/R), transmit only the unnotated texts of the chants. All but one of these graduals are found combined in the same manuscript with a sacramentary or (in one case) an Office antiphoner. Complete neumed exemplars of the gradual are not attested until the 10th century (CH-SGs 339; F-LA 239). Pieces from suppressed chant repertories such as the Gallican and Beneventan supplemented the Gregorian chants of the gradual, a volume traditionally associated with Pope Gregory the Great (d 604). The physical size of the gradual eventually increased, so that it could be read by several singers standing around a lectern.
The term ‘cantatorium’ was also applied to books containing chants for the Mass, especially in Roman sources. The earliest surviving examples of cantatoria (dating from the 9th and 10th centuries), one of which includes musical notation, contain only soloist’s chants, that is, the gradual, tract and alleluia. Later cantatoria vary considerably in their contents, but most are restricted to solo chants.
See also Gradual (ii), and Cantatorium.
(from Lat. missale, missalis plenarius). The book containing all the material necessary for celebrating Mass; it resulted from the integration of the priest’s sacramentary, the deacon’s evangeliary, the subdeacon’s epistolary and the cantor’s gradual. Most missals incorporated rubrics as well as private devotional prayers (apologiae) and prayers related to ritual actions (censing, ablution) that were recited silently by the priest. Not all medieval missals contained complete cycles of Masses for the liturgical year, an indication perhaps that some priests repeated a relatively small repertory of Masses. Some contained no more than the incipits of the relatively lengthy texts of the Epistle and Gospel readings. The process that led to the development of the ‘plenary’ missal was well advanced by the end of the 9th century, stimulated at least in part by the increase in private Masses. This development also reflected a shift of liturgical perspective: the priest-celebrant now discharged all of the liturgical duties that had formerly been fulfilled by clerical participants in the Mass. The function of plenary missals with musical notation has not been satisfactorily explained; certainly the copying of such books would have required planning to allow adequate space for the insertion of staffless neumes, a notation that demanded the skills of a professional singer for its interpretation.
See also Missal.
(from Lat. processionale, liber processionalis). The book containing the texts and music of processional antiphons and hymns, which were sung in some places at special ceremonies and before Mass on feast days. The earliest surviving processionals were copied in the 12th century; before this time processional chants were usually included in the gradual, although they could also form part of a troper, antiphoner or breviary. Most of the extant manuscripts are small in size, making them easily portable.
See also Processional.
(from Lat. liber troparius, troparium). The book, or section of a chant book, containing the texts and music of the tropes and usually a selection of other soloist’s chants from the Mass. Tropers vary considerably in their content and organization, and might include sequence texts and melodies, offertory verses, alleluias, processional chants or Ordinary chants. The earliest extant tropers date from the 10th century; after the 13th century they are rarely found as independent books.
See also Troper.
(from Lat. tonarius, tonarium, tonale). The book in which the antiphons of Mass and Office chants of the Gregorian repertory are classified according to the eight psalm tones; see Tonary
Liturgy & liturgical books, §II: Medieval Western rite
The earliest extant medieval books for the Divine Office, like those for the Mass, followed the principle that each participant in the liturgy would have his or her own proper book.
The book in which the psalms are divided according to the days of the week to which they were assigned; notated psalters also include the ferial antiphons for the psalms with the psalm-tone differentiae appropriate to each. The entire community of monks, nuns or secular canons participated in the singing of the psalms, but since the psalms were generally memorized, it was not necessary for every singer to use a psalter.
See also Psalter, liturgical.
The book containing the readings from the scriptures recited at Matins. At first, each day’s scripture reading simply continued from the point reached on the previous day; this practice required no book other than the Bible. As a system of fixed, assigned pericopes evolved, these were gathered into an Office lectionary, perhaps as early as the 9th century. These scriptural extracts were further abbreviated in the 11th century.
(from Lat. homeliarium, homeliarius, homelium, homiliarium). The book containing excerpts from the writings of the Church Fathers prescribed to be read at Matins and arranged in liturgical order. These patristic readings either explained the meaning of a feast or liturgical season, or explicated passages of scripture. The two categories were usually distinguished as sermons or homilies, respectively, but the distinction was often blurred. Several homiliary traditions have been identified. The festal homiliary of S Pietro, Rome, can be traced back to the mid-7th century (see Grégoire); it presents an anthology of patristic texts appropriate to a given feast from which liturgical readings could be selected. The Frankish Church did not follow the Roman homiliary traditions; Charlemagne, as part of his liturgical reforms at the end of the 8th century, ordered the preparation of a new homiliary, a comprehensive collection of 244 texts organized according to the number of readings required for each liturgical observance. For certain occasions (the principal feasts of the Temporale, feasts of the saints, Sundays of Lent) the Carolingian homiliary provided a sermon for the three readings of the second nocturn. For the third nocturn of every Sunday and feast day there was a homily on the Gospel reading.
(from Lat. martyrologium). A list of saints (not all of them martyrs) according to the days on which their feasts are observed. Generally, only the most essential details of the place, manner of death (in the case of a martyr) and approximate date of death (i.e. natalitia – birth into heavenly glory) are given. Regional modifications included the names of saints whose cult was local. Marginal entries listed the names of deceased friends and benefactors of the church or convent where the martyrology was in use, so that they could be remembered on the anniversary of their deaths. The martyrology was recited daily at Prime. In the Dominican rite the reading of the martyrology followed Prime as part of the Office of Pretiosa (called thus from its first words: ‘precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints’).
(legendarius, passionarium). A book containing the Lives of the Saints (vitae), ordered according to their feast days. Such readings were at first not part of the Divine Office at Rome but were popular in the Gallican and Spanish Churches. The books might not have been intended primarily for liturgical use. A complete vita might be far too long for recitation at the night Office; marginal annotations indicated the extent of the reading and divided the text into ‘lessons’ (1 to 9). The reading of the vita could, if desired, be continued in the refectory.
(Lat. liber hymnorum). A book of hymns often found in conjunction with a liturgical psalter or an antiphoner. In the liturgical code of his monastic Rule, Benedict of Nursia (c480–550) prescribed the singing of a hymn at the Office Hours. This practice was adopted by the Irish and Gallican Churches, but not at Rome or at Lyons, where non-biblical texts were held in suspicion. The earliest hymnaries (known collectively as the ‘Old Hymnary’) contained mainly hymns for ferias and Sundays but very few Proper hymns for feasts. This repertory was expanded under Frankish auspices in the 8th and 9th centuries, but the largest increase came with the ‘New Hymnary’ (first found in 9th-century Frankish sources), which contained a repertory that eventually grew to more than 250 hymns in some 11th-century collections. The number of texts far exceeds the number of melodies, since melodies composed for a given metre could be fitted to all texts in that metre. Not all hymnaries are notated, but typically the melody is written out once with the first verse followed by the texts of the following verses.
See also Hymn, §II.
(antiphonal; from Lat. antiphonarius, antiphonarium, antiphonale). The book that brings together, in liturgical order, the musical items of the Office sung by the cantor and choir: the antiphons for the psalms and canticles, the great responsories chanted after the readings, hymns, a collection of invitatories and possibly a psalter. Its organization follows the division of the liturgical year into the Temporale and Sanctorale, and includes a Commune sanctorum. Monastic and secular antiphoners differ mainly in the structuring of Matins, Lauds and Vespers. There were also many regional variations, particularly with respect to the choice of responsories. The term ‘antiphonarius’ is first attested from the mid-8th century and in the early Middle Ages was often applied to a book (without notation) of chant texts for the Mass as well as the Office. By the later Middle Ages and Renaissance the format of the antiphoner had grown in size and was placed on a massive lectern in the middle of the choir. Sometimes matched pairs of antiphoners were used, one on each side of the choir.
See also Antiphoner.
(from Lat. breviarium: ‘abridgment’). The book combining all or some of the texts and, occasionally, music for the Divine Office or portions thereof, arranged according to the Temporale and Sanctorale. Medieval breviaries are not necessarily truncated versions of complete Offices or small, easily portable books. Whatever its size or degree of completeness, a breviary assembled material from various sources in a single volume. The material could be merely juxtaposed or, more usefully, integrated according to the order required for the service, although not every element needed for the celebration of the Office might be included. Salmon (1967) has traced the origins of the breviary to 9th- and 10th-century ‘collectaires enrichis’. These combined the collectar (also known as the orationale or manuale), the prayers said by the officiant (called ‘hebdomadarian’ since the duty rotated weekly) at Sunday and ferial Offices, with a capitula, brief scriptural passages recited at all the Offices except Matins. Bound with the book might be a ‘breviarium’ or ordo describing the Office throughout the year and containing incipits of prayers and chants.
See also Breviary.
Liturgy & liturgical books, §II: Medieval Western rite
(Lat.: ‘ritual’). A book containing directions for the performance of one or a number of liturgical Offices. It served as a reference manual for the cantor, master of ceremonies or hebdomadarian who had responsibility for assuring the decorous celebration of the liturgy. Only the incipits of the readings, prayers and chants are usually given; the full form had to be sought in the relevant Mass or Office book. The term is generally applied to a group of documents known as the Ordines romani, commonly cited according to the modern edition of Andrieu (Leuven, 1931–56/R). Although the manuscript tradition of these ordines, numbered 1–50 in Andrieu’s edition, begins in the late 8th century, a number of the ceremonies they describe date from the late 7th century. Two principal collections of ordines have been identified: the first (A) contains authentic Roman material with few modifications, while the contents of the second (B) has been more thoroughly adapted to Frankish practice. None of the extant manuscripts originated in Rome.
(from Lat. ordinarius). Each diocese, cathedral, collegiate church, monastery or confederation of monasteries might have its own liturgical directory, generally known to modern scholars as an ‘ordinal’. Unlike the Ordines romani, which describe either single ceremonies or only portions of the liturgical year (e.g. Holy Week), an ordinal covers the entire liturgical year. It was by nature a local document without the universal appeal of the Roman ordines. Ordinals intergrate the Mass and Office of the day in their proper sequence, but the large-scale structure of the book either combines the Temporale and Sanctorale in blocks over the course of the year, or divides the two cycles into separate books, a solution favoured from the 13th century onwards. The ordinal also incorporates certain ritual details about the rank of participants in the liturgy, the vestments to be worn, the number of candles etc., depending on the solemnity of the feast. A customary (from Lat. consuetudo) resembles an ordinal in some respects, but its primary purpose is the regulation of the internal discipline and customs of a monastery or a community of secular canons. (A handlist of ordinals and customaries for nearly 130 medieval institutions is given in Le graduel romain, ii: Les sources, Solesmes, 1962, 189–96.)
(from Lat. ceremoniale). A book prescribing in precise detail the actions of all participants in a liturgical observance. In general, chants or prayers specific to the liturgy are not mentioned. The two most important representatives of the genre are the Papal Ceremonial, which regulates the observance of the papal court, the election and coronation of the pope and the imperial coronation, and the Ceremonial of Bishops, which describes the conduct of Offices proper to the episcopal rank or those carried out in the presence of the diocesan bishop. Before the publication of the Caeremoniale episcoporum in 1600, many of these items could be found in the pontifical.
(from Lat. Ordo pontificalis). The book containing the rites proper to a bishop. In the early Middle Ages books containing these rites did not follow any standard pattern; they included material for occasional services such as clerical ordination, confirmation, the expulsion of penitents on Ash Wednesday, their reconciliation on Maundy Thursday, the dedication of churches, the blessing of sacred vessels, and the anointing of monarchs. The pontifical contains the texts of all the prayers recited by the bishop, describes the course of the ceremonies, and provides the incipits of chants or, on occasion, complete texts with notation. Scholars distinguish four successive types of medieval pontifical: (1) the Romano-Germanic Pontifical of the 10th century, compiled (c950–62) at the abbey of St Alban in Mainz and subsequently introduced at Rome; (2) the Roman Pontifical of the 12th century; (3) the various 13th-century recensions of the Pontifical of the Roman Curia; and (4) the pontifical compiled (c1293–5) by Guillaume Durand, bishop of Mende. Durand added material to earlier pontificals, but eliminated all rites not proper to the episcopal office. Agostino Patrizi de Piccolomini and Johannes Burkhard revised Durand’s work for the first printed edition of the Pontificale romanum (Rome, 1595).
(from Lat. benedictionale, liber benedictionum). The book containing the blessings pronounced by the bishop at Mass after the Pater noster and before the Pax Domini semper vobiscum; these blessings were not included in the sacramentary. Benedictionals may also contain material for episcopal liturgical functions outside the Mass. A number of lavish Anglo-Saxon exemplars are among the surviving manuscripts.
(from Lat. rituale, manuale, agenda, sacramentale). The liturgical book containing all the services other than the Mass and Office celebrated by a priest. Essentially, the ritual is the priest's equivalent of the pontifical and includes formulae for baptism, marriage, last rites, burial and various benedictions. Some of the earliest surviving rituals, which date from the 10th and 11th centuries, are combined with collectars or sacramentaries. From the 11th century onwards rituals became increasingly independent of the other liturgical books.
For further discussion of Western liturgical books see Plainchant, §§2–3.
None of the Churches that grew out of the Reformation maintained the medieval Latin liturgy intact. Emphasis shifted in the direction of the ‘preaching service’ that had evolved within the pre-Reformation Mass liturgy. In south Germany and Switzerland in particular the preaching of the Word and admonitions addressed to the congregation were central elements of every Gottesdienst. The demand that the liturgy should be intelligible to the worshippers led to the introduction of the vernacular. As the amount of ritual solemnity was curtailed, the variable chants of the Mass fell into disuse. With the abolition of monasticism within the Reformed Churches, the Divine Office ceased to be observed by Protestants, although Anglican Matins and Evensong were notable exceptions.
Martin Luther published a proposed reform of the liturgy in 1523 (Formula missae et communis), maintaining that he did not wish to abolish the Mass but rather to purify it of elements that contradicted the scriptures (see Luther, Martin). This reform entailed the abolition of the Canon with its focus on sacrifice. Luther’s subsequent work, Deutsche Messe und Ordnung Gottes Diensts (1526), provided a simpler vernacular order of worship with congregational hymns in German. Luther adapted the traditional Latin oration and lection tones to the chanting in German of the Epistle, Gospel and pastor’s chants at the altar. Other Kirchenordnungen were introduced in those parts of Germany that embraced the Reformation.
One of these local German uses inspired Then swenska messan (1531) of the Swedish reformer Olav Petri. No music was provided in this publication, although the vernacular liturgy was celebrated with great solemnity in Stockholm. The reformed liturgy of King Johann III (Liturgia svecanae ecclesiae catholicae & orthodoxae conformis, 1576, in Latin and Swedish), although limited in its influence, was remarkable for its determination to recover the richness of the traditional Latin liturgy while remaining true to reformed principles of worship.
Ulrich Zwingli’s first vernacular order of Communion, Aktion oder Brauch des Nachtmals, was published in 1525 (see Zwingli, Ulrich). This order was intended to be a remembrance of the Last Supper and was celebrated only four times a year; the bread and wine were distributed to the congregation not at the altar rail but in the nave. On ordinary Sundays the service emphasized scripture readings and the sermon. The reformed Communion order for Basel, probably prepared by Johannes Oekolampad, dates from 1526. It was not derived from the Mass, but combined the preaching service with the order for distributing Communion outside the Mass. Common to both these Swiss orders was the presence of admonitions to the congregation that they receive Communion worthily.
The earliest surviving version of Jean Calvin’s order of reformed liturgy in Geneva, based on that of Strasbourg, carries the date 1542 (see Calvin, Jean). As its title, La forme des prieres et chantz ecclesiastiques, suggests, it was a book designed for the congregation, who sang the psalms and canticles in metrical versions. Calvin did not intend his liturgy to be imposed everywhere, but it was made obligatory for the reformed congregations of France by the Synod of Montauban in 1594.
In England the reform of the liturgical rites began after the death of Henry VIII in 1547, but the creation of a definitive English liturgy was not completed until the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. The moving spirit behind the first English liturgical reforms was Thomas Cranmer (d 1556), Archbishop of Canterbury, the chief author and editor of the Booke of the Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Churche after the Use of the Churche of England. In 1549 a parliamentary ‘Act of Uniformity’ prescribed the use of this service book throughout the realm. Three years later, another version of the Prayer Book rearranged parts of the liturgy and moved English worship closer to the spirit of continental reformers such as Zwingli. The 1662 Book of Common Prayer restored a ‘consecration’ of the bread and wine, as the Scottish prayer book had done in 1637.
Cranmer restructured parts of the medieval Divine Office into the prayer services of Matins (Mattins) and Evensong. In 1550 John Marbeck issued The Booke of Common Praier Noted, with simple syllabic settings of the services, but revisions introduced by the 1552 Prayer Book made Marbeck’s syllabic settings obsolete almost immediately. From the time of Elizabeth I (1558–1603), a metrical psalter with melodies was often bound together with the Book of Common Prayer. The 1662 Prayer Book (with psalter) has never ceased to be the authorized worship book of the Church of England, although it was largely displaced in 1980 by The Alternative Service Book. The latter has itself been superseded by Common Worship (2000), which incorporates most of the material from the 1662 Prayer Book.
By the time the Council of Trent convened in 1545 to attempt to reverse the effect of the Reformation, reformed worship was entrenched throughout northern Europe. The liturgical decrees of the Council rejected the liturgical views of the reformers and ordered the preparation of standarized liturgical books (all in Latin) to be imposed on all the clergy and faithful. Chief among these were the Missale romanum (1570), the Breviarium romanum (1568, revised in 1914) and the Pontificale romanum (1595). These and the other liturgical books of the Roman Catholic Church remained virtually unchanged until the Second Vatican Council (1962–5). A revision of the Graduale romanum was also commissioned. The results, however, proved unfortunate since the editors applied humanistic concepts of accentuation and eliminated many melismas from the traditional melodies. This ‘Medicaean’ Gradual (so-called from the Roman printing office that issued it, 1614–15) distorted the traditional melodies, which were finally restored early in the 20th century on the basis of the research undertaken by the monks of the abbey of St Pierre de Solesmes. The Vatican edition of the restored Graduale romanum was issued in 1907 and later republished by the monks of Solesmes with the addition of their ‘rhythmic signs’. The modern Liber usualis is not a reproduction of any medieval liturgical book but a compilation of chants for Sundays and feasts throughout the year, together with chants for portions of the Divine Office.
The most familiar liturgical book in modern churches is undoubtedly the hymnal. Although Anglican service books have mostly remained separate from the hymnal, many denominations have adopted a combined ‘hymnal and service book’. Contents and arrangement differ but, in addition to the main corpus of hymns, there will usually be found various items of service music, an abridged psalter, rites for morning and evening prayer, and the text of occasional services (baptism, a burial Office). These books are normally official denominational publications, as, for example, the German Evangelisches Kirchengesangbuch, which exists in regional versions, and the Catholic Gotteslob, which serves Catholics in all the German-speaking countries of Europe.
For further discussion of liturgical books, including those used in the present-day services of the major denominations, see Anglican and Episcopalian church music; Baptist church music; Lutheran church music; Methodist church music; Pentecostal and Renewal church music; Reformed and Presbyterian church music; Roman Catholic church music; and Unitarian church music.
Liturgy & liturgical books, §IV: Byzantine rite
The Byzantine rite is in most respects organized like that of the Western Church. There are regular services corresponding to the Mass (see Divine liturgy (byzantine)), celebrated daily in monasteries but normally only on Sundays elsewhere, and to the Divine Office, whose principal divisions are Orthros (‘daybreak service’, equivalent to Matins and Lauds) and Hesperinos (Vespers). Although the Byzantine Offices are very long and prolix, their daily recitation is in theory (though not in practice) obligatory for the clergy. In addition the Office includes various lesser daily services: Apodeipnon (Compline); Mesonyktikon (the ‘midnight’ service); the four Little Hours of Hōra prōtē (Prime), Hōra tritē (Terce), Hōra hektē (Sext) and Hōra ennatē (None); and Typika, the short Office that falls between the sixth and ninth hours. The contents of these Hours are found in the hōrologion (see below). Both the Divine Liturgy and the Office contain fixed and variable elements corresponding to the Ordinary and Proper of the Western rite.
Liturgy & liturgical books, §IV: Byzantine rite
For each year in the Eastern Church there is a calendar of movable feasts with the Lent-Easter-Pentecost cycle at its centre, and a calendar of fixed commemorations of saints, the latter, since the 9th century at the latest, beginning with the Byzantine Indiction and the feasts of St Symeon Stylites on 1 September. As in the West, Christmas falls on 25 December, Epiphany on 6 January, St George’s Day on 23 April, the Assumption on 15 August, etc. The Orthodox Liturgy has a further layer of organization not found in the West: an eight-week cycle, the weeks corresponding to the eight modes – the oktōēchos – of Byzantine chant. The Oktōēchos (with its expansion, the paraklētikē) is a collection of hymns and liturgical formulae sufficient for a full week’s services in each of the eight modes. Beginning with the octave of Pentecost and continuing until the beginning of Holy Week, each week in the Byzantine calendar has a common mode assigned to it (1st mode for the first week, 2nd mode for the second, etc.; then 1st mode again for the ninth, 2nd mode for the tenth, etc.); during Easter week the mode changes each day, and the 3rd plagal mode (barys) is omitted. Texts not provided with a specific chant formula of their own are sung to music drawn from the appropriate mode in the oktōēchos.
Liturgy & liturgical books, §IV: Byzantine rite
In comparison with Western usage, a relatively large number of liturgical books is employed for the celebration of the Byzantine rite. This is partly because the exceptional quantity of Eastern hymnody necessitates the division of some books that in the West remained undivided; but it is also because the contents of the Eastern books are designed more narrowly to suit particular liturgical functions and functionaries. Combination volumes such as the Western missal (in which the sacramentary, evangeliary, epistolary and gradual are combined) or the still more comprehensive, pre-Vatican II Liber usualis (which also includes much of the Divine Office) have been slower to gain popularity in the East.
The following list of liturgical books is comprehensive for the Byzantine period, omitting only some uncommon subdivisions and alternative divisions of larger collections. It is less complete for the post-Byzantine period, in which many novel anthologies with new names – anthologion, anastasimatarion, synekdēmos, biblion tōn proseuchōn, hieratikon, hierotelestikon, agiasmatarion, liturgikon, etc. – have combined anew the contents of older collections.
The old Eastern ‘prayer book’ for the celebrant, corresponding to the Western sacramentary; it contained the texts of the prayers for the Divine Liturgy, Office, ordinations and other rites, and also included an outline of the services, at times providing rubrics or the diakonika (responses of the deacon). The earliest known Greek copy and the oldest surviving Greek liturgical book is the Barberini Euchologion, I-Rvat Barberini gr.336, which probably dates from the late 8th century. A special class of euchologion is limited to the prayers and rubrics of the Divine Liturgy. One or all three of the standard Byzantine eucharistic liturgies (St Basil, St John Chrysostom, the Liturgy of the Presanctified) may appear. Early manuscripts of the liturgy are often in roll format.
The book of the Hours that corresponds to a Western breviary: it includes the Ordinary of the Hours (the full texts of prescribed psalms, lections and chants) as well as some Proper texts. Originally designed for the monastic Office in Palestine, the Byzantine hōrologion later fused early monastic traditions with those of the ‘cathedral’ rite.
The book that provides a summary of the full Ordinary and Proper for the services throughout the year and the rules governing their celebration; it corresponds in one of its forms to the Western ordinal. No single Byzantine book, however, brings together all the provisions and directions for the execution of the various rites. A Jerusalem Holy Week typikon dating from 1122 is the earliest extant extensive Greek source for the characteristic liturgical practice of the Holy City (see Papadopoulos-Kerameus). (Exemplars of the 9th–10th-century Constantinopolitan typikon have been published by Dmitrievsky (vol.i) and Mateos.)
A psalter in which the psalms are arranged for liturgical recitation. As in the West, the psalter is often found as a separate liturgical book, but with the biblical canticles appended. There are separate monastic and cathedral traditions for the grouping of the psalms and their division into verses.
The liturgical books containing the readings from the scriptures, equivalent to the lectionaries of the Western Church. Unlike the liturgical volumes listed above, these books normally have provision for musical notation, which takes the form of ekphonetic (lectionary) neumes rather than melodic notation (see Byzantine chant, §2). The apostolos is the Epistle lectionary and contains all the readings from the New Testament except those from the Gospels and the Apocalypse (the latter is not used in the Byzantine liturgy). The pericopes are arranged according to their order in the calendar. Many 11th- and 12th-century copies are provided with ekphonetic neumes. In its fully developed form, the apostolos also contained, in appendices, the responsories (prokeimena, allēlouïaria) for the whole church year and calendars with lection tables for the movable and fixed cycles respectively.
The evangelion is the Gospel lectionary and is used primarily in the Divine Liturgy. Its pericopes are liturgically ordered, which distinguishes it from the tetraevangelion, a book simply containing the four Gospels in their biblical order.
The prophetologion contains the Old Testament lessons, which are more numerous in the Eastern Church than in the Roman, for the fixed and movable feasts of the year.
The book containing the acts of the Synods or Councils. In a rare case – the 11th-century Holkham Synodikon (GB-Ob) – ekphonetic notation is provided for some portions of the conciliar acts that were publicly chanted each year at the commemoration of particular Councils.
The books containing collections, in calendar order, of the Lives of the Saints; they correspond to the Western martyrologies. The shortest examples are little more than annotated calendars; the longest run to a full volume for each of the 12 months.
The liturgical books that together form the Common of the Time. The Oktōēchos is a set of eight complete Proper services for the Offices of Saturday night and Sunday morning (Hesperinos and Orthros), arranged in the order of the eight modes; it forms one of the most important collections of hymns, and its music eventually appeared in the heirmologion (see below) and the noted oktōēchos. Where there is no provision for a Proper formula in the Proper of the Time or Proper of the Saints, the formula is taken from the appropriate modal section of the oktōēchos.
The paraklētikē represents an expansion of the oktōēchos; it adds Common Hours services for each weekday to the eight-week, eight-mode cycle, and in its massive content normally includes also the Saturday and Sunday services of the oktōēchos.
As these two books in effect form a Common of the Time, they must be used in conjunction with three other collections – the mēnaion, triōdion and pentēkostarion – to make up an enormous missal-breviary containing the full Proper of the Time and Proper of the Saints.
The liturgical books that together form the Proper of the Saints for the Church year. The mēnaion (‘month’ services) contains the variable hymns and other texts proper to Hesperinos and Orthros for the fixed calendar year; it is still published in 12 volumes – a volume for each month (hence the usual plural, ‘mēnaia’), beginning with the September volume for the start of the year. The mēnaia, then, contain the Proper of the Saints and the Proper of each feast that falls on a fixed date.
The triōdion contains the Propers for Lent, and, since the central Middle Ages, has also included the material for the Sundays before Lent.
The pentēkostarion contains the Propers from the Easter Vigil up to the Byzantine feast of All Saints – the octave of Pentecost.
These are named according to their specific content and internal organization. The oldest collections, which date from the 9th and 10th centuries, are known variously as the tropologion, kanōnarion, kondakarion, theotokarian, paraklētikē and oktōēchos. These early books are not provided with notation; the earliest hymnbooks specifically designed to contain melodies throughout were the heirmologion and stichērarion (see below).
The notated hymnbook containing the syllabic heirmoi (model-stanzas) for the kānones, which are sung at Orthros (see Kanōn), arranged according to the system of eight modes. A heirmologion may also contain the stylistically similar refrains accompanying the Beatitudes (Makarismoi). The earliest surviving manuscripts date from the 10th century, and all copies were specifically designed to carry musical notation throughout, usually in Palaeo-Byzantine neumes.
See also Heirmologion.
The chant book containing music for the hymns (stichēra) sung at Orthros and Hesperinos throughout the year. With the heirmologion it was one of the oldest hymnbooks to be provided with melodic neumes throughout; the oldest extant copies date from the 10th and 11th centuries and are notated in Palaeo-Byzantine neumes. The stichērarion has four separate sections: the first three parallel the arrangement of the mēnaia, triōdion and pentēkostarion; the fourth provides music for the hymns of the modally ordered oktōēchos. These four sections of the stichērarion are also found as separate music books. Their hymn content may appear with notation interpolated within the parent text collections, making it possible to find notated hymns in a mēnaion, triōdion, pentēkostarion or oktōēchos, which are otherwise purely textual collections.
See also Stichērarion.
Two important music collections representing the usage of the church of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople between the 11th (or even 9th) and 13th centuries; they contain florid hymns and psalmody. The psaltikon is a soloist’s book containing chants for the prokeimena of the Divine Liturgy and Office, the verses of the great troparia, the allēlouïa verses for the Divine Liturgy, the great responsories (hypakoai), the kontakia for the year, and, in a rare case, the full Akathistos Hymn. Only a few copies survive, all dating from the 13th or 14th centuries. The asmatikon is the corresponding book for the trained choirs – psaltai – of Hagia Sophia. The functional division between the two collections is so strictly observed that in the case of responsorial chants such as the prokeimena, which are performed in part by the soloist (psaltēs), in part by the choir (psaltai), the solo sections appear in the psaltikon, the choral sections in the asmatikon; both books are required to reconstruct the chant in full. This division also extends to style. The psaltikon has its own characteristic, melismatic styles that differ from the styles found in the asmatikon. For example, texts such as the hypakoai and kontakia may occur in both books, but the type of setting depends upon the book.
Copies of the asmatikon may contain some or all of the following: the cycles of koinōnika (communions); the choral refrains of the prokeimena and great troparia; the Pasa pnoē in the eight modes; the hypakoai and the kontakia; some Proper chants for the Dedication; and some Ordinary chants of the Divine Liturgy, including the eisodikon, the three Trisagia (see Trisagion) and the Cheroubikon. Fewer than a dozen Greek copies of the asmatikon survive, all dating from the 13th century or the early 14th; all but two are from south Italy. The two Greek copies from the Empire itself are GR-ATS great lavra γβ and Kastoria Cathedral Library MS 8; most of the south Italian copies are at Messina and Grottaferrata.
Supplementing these manuscripts is a small group of copies in Moscow and Leningrad that were written between the 11th and 13th centuries in Church Slavonic and noted in varieties of the early Slavonic melismatic notation. These manuscripts have been called ‘kondakars’ by Russian scholars, because they primarily contain the melodic versions of the kontakia found in the asmatikon; but they derive from lost archetypes of the Constantinopolitan asmatikon, and their so-called Slavonic ‘kondakarion’ notation is really derived – as are their melodies – from the Greek traditions.
In about 1300 the Constantinople maïstor Joannes Koukouzeles compiled the archetype of a collection called the Akolouthiai or Orders of Service, designed to contain within a single book most of the Ordinary and Proper chants then in use for Hesperinos, Orthros and the three eucharistic liturgies; many of the chants appeared there in notation for the first time. The principal omissions were the heirmoi and stichēra, whose inclusion would have made an already bulky collection altogether unmanageable.
During the 14th and 15th centuries further collections appeared, almost always containing novel florid elaborations of traditional melodic materials. The Byzantine term for such elaborations is ‘kalophonic’ (‘beautiful sounding’, or ‘beautified’; see Byzantine chant, §12, and Kalophonic chant). Thus there arose the kalophonic stichērarion, kalophonic heirmologion and kalophonic kontakarion. Another collection, also from the time of the Byzantine Empire, called the kratēmatarion, was devoted to freely composed florid melismas in the new style.
See also Akolouthiai.
For further discussion of the Byzantine rite see Byzantine chant. For other Orthodox liturgies see Armenia, §II; Coptic church music; Ethiopia, §II, 2; Georgia, §II, 2; Romania, §II; Russian and Slavonic church music; and Syrian church music, §2.
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