A musical instrument whose sound is generated essentially by the vibration of thin lamellae (Lat. lamella, from lamina: ‘a thin plate or layer’) or tongues (hence the term ‘linguaphone’) of metal, wood or other material. Here, however, the term ‘lamellophone’ is not used for free-reed aerophones such as the Jew’s harp, Accordion or the European Mouth organ, nor for the European Musical box, but for another type of idiophone found throughout many regions of sub-Saharan Africa and in Latin America.
3. Typology, tuning and playing techniques.
5. Written and iconographical sources.
6. African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries.
GERHARD KUBIK (1–6), PETER COOKE/R (7)
Lamellophones form a particularly important and much ramified family of African musical instruments.
A lamellophone produces sound when a lamella (or tongue), fixed at one end (by a great variety of means) and free at the other, is caused to vibrate by being gently depressed and then released by the player. As far as we know lamellophones with a complex structure and technology evolved only in sub-Saharan Africa. They represent a development of the principle outlined above: a number of lamellae are prepared for use, laid in order, fixed over a soundboard and tuned reciprocally. The soundboard may be a flat board or a resonator of various shapes, such as box- or bell-shaped. The lamellae can be attached in a wide variety of ways. On an exceptional type of instrument found in the lower Ruvuma Valley in Mozambique, Tanzania, they are hooked into the wood, but the most common method involves fixing them to a pressure bar placed between two strips of wood, which serve respectively as backrest and bridge. Extending over the bridge, the free end of each lamella can be a different length, and that determines its pitch (fig.1).
In the course of the lamellophone's history, countless forms developed in sub-Saharan Africa. Until about the middle of the 20th century, before the instruments disappeared from many areas in sub-Saharan Africa, there was great diversity in technical devices and playing techniques (Laurenty, 1962; Kubik and Malamusi 1985–7; Borel, 1986; Kubik, Berlin, 1999, and Los Angeles, 1999). In the wake of the slave trade, some types of lamellophone spread from Africa to other regions of the world, including various parts of the Caribbean, Central and South America. There are large collections of lamellophones in European museums from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In ethnographic and travel literature in European languages, African lamellophones are referred to by a variety of terms including ‘hand piano’, ‘thumb piano’, ‘pianino’, even ‘Kaffir piano’ and ‘Klimper’ (the German equivalent of ‘joanna’). Sometimes local names were reported in the orthographic systems of the various European languages, and occasionally distorted. Thus the Kimbundu term kisanji entered the Portuguese language as quissange. A famous example of a corrupted form that was reported is ‘sansa’ (also ‘sanza’, ‘zanza’), referring to a common designation of the instrument in the lower Zambezi valley (Mozambique); nsansi (in Chiyungwe) or sansi (in the Maravi languages); the error seems to go back to Charles Livingstone.
The adoption of a local name, distorted or not, in a European language also regularly entailed some form of generalization. The specific local expression was interpreted as an African generic term for this group of instruments. One example is the generalization of the word mbira, indigenous to Zimbabwe; in the literature this has been used sometimes to denote not only West African lamellophones that were never called mbira but even Caribbean and Latin American instruments.
The word ‘Lamellophon’ was used for the first time by Kubik (1966) and has since become accepted in the major European languages (‘lamellophone’ in French and English; ‘lamelofone’ in Portuguese, etc.).
Table 1 illustrates some common names for lamellophones in African languages. In spite of this variety, especially in Bantu languages, many of the names display common word-stems: -limba or -rimba; -mbila or -mbira; -sansi or -sanji; and -kembe. Some are identical in lamellophone and xylophone names of Central and south-east Africa. This suggests that an analogy is felt by the speakers of these languages.
African lamellophones can be classified according to organology, playing techniques and other principles. Tracey's Handbook for Librarians (1948) and distribution map (1961), use a system based on the type of resonator summarized as follows:
Also termed ‘board lamellophone’. This type most often has an external resonator, usually a gourd-calabash, e.g. the ocisanji in central and south-western Angola (fig.2).
This also has an external resonator, e.g. the kalimba of the Chewa in Malawi and eastern Zambia (fig.3).
The defining trait is that the resonator, like a bell, is open in one direction, namely towards the player's stomach e.g. the Loango coast type, several Zimbabwe-Zambezi types such as the matepe and nyonganyonga, the sasi (fig.4) of the Khokola at Lake Chilwa, and the mucapata of the Cokwe in Angola (fig.5).
This is usually rectangular, but sometimes trapezoid. It is often hollowed-out from one piece and closed by a strip of wood e.g. the likembe (fig.6). The agidigbo of the Yoruba of Nigeria has an oversized resonator made from a crate (fig.7).
These include the ‘raft’ made of raffia straw (as in Cameroon), and the ‘dish’, with board attached by nails or glue, as in Gabon.
Irregular shapes in addition to Hugh Tracey's basic categories are frequently found in parts of Central Africa (from Gabon and southern Cameroon) to coastal areas of eastern Nigeria. Tracey's categories have been refined and modified to meet specific regional requirements by other writers, including Borel (1986), Dias (1986), De Hen (1960) and Laurenty (1962). Laurenty drew up a scheme of classification for the huge variety of lamellophones from the Democratic Republic of Congo preserved in the Musée Royale de l'Afrique Centrale in Tervuren.
Working with mbira players in Zimbabwe, Andrew Tracey (1972) discovered that musicians in this culture area think in terms of the tuning layout rather than organological features. Layout tends to be constant, in contrast with the actual intervals, which vary considerably from one musician to another; sometimes even a single musician may appear to have changed the tuning from occasion to occasion. For this reason, Tracey introduced a technique of notation that elucidates the tuning layout, pentatonic or heptatonic, without being diverted by the details of individual margins of tolerance (see fig.8).
Various devices are used to modify timbre and to produce sympathetic resonance, for instance: threading pieces of shell or bottle-tops and attaching them to the resonator; fixing rings individually around the lamellae, specific to likembe box-resonated lamellophones (fig.6); laying a string of beads or pieces of metal across the tongues as in the malimba of south-west Tanzania but also the asologun of the Bini of Nigeria; threading rings on a metal bar in a bell-shaped wooden resonator as on the matepe of the Shona and the mucapata of the Cokwe of Angola (see also fig.4); glueing a membrane from an African house-spider's nest over a hole in the middle of the soundboard, most common on the small lamellophones with fan-shaped soundboards of eastern Zambia and the central region of Malawi (fig.3) but also a feature of the box-resonated ilimba of the Gogo of Tanzania; and attaching vibrating pins to the upper side of raffia lamellae, as with the lamellophones of the Tikar and Vute in Cameroon.
The most common way of playing lamellophones is using the thumbs to depress and release the tongues. Lamellophones with box-shaped resonators may have a soundhole in the back, manipulated by the middle finger of the left hand during play to modify the timbre and to produce a ‘wowing’ effect (fig.6b). In Zimbabwe and the lower Zambezi region, thumbs and index fingers of both hands are often used with the index fingers plucking the lamellae from below. This technique is also found in the Cameroon grasslands among the Tikar and neighbouring groups.
The coast of West Africa is home to some unusual playing techniques and playing positions, for example the kondi of Sierra Leone (van Oven, 1973–4) which seems to be played ‘reversed’.
Organological characteristics, as well as aspects of playing technique and terminology, suggest historical connections between the lamellophones and xylophones in Africa. In a letter to the editor of African Music (1973–4), Arthur M. Jones put forward the thesis that lamellophones were conceived as ‘portable xylophones’. Jones argued that the scalar layout of eight xylophone slats could have been transformed into a V-shaped layout of eight lamellae, with the lowest note in the middle. Each thumb of the lamellophone player would then have represented one hand only of two xylophonists sitting opposite one another. In other words, according to Jones, two imaginary xylophonists were merged into one person (fig.9).
Andrew Tracey reconstructed a ‘family tree’ of the lamellophones for south-east Africa (1972). He discovered the ‘kalimba core’, an eight-note tuning pattern hidden in a central part of the tuning layout of most lamellophones (fig.10). This actually exists on some fan-shaped instruments in Zambia. Tracey then successfully reconstructed a genealogy and thereby a relative chronology of lamellophones in south-east Africa.
Archaeological finds have given hints on the early history of lamellophones. Joseph O. Vogel dug up strips of iron at Kumadzulo on the Zambezi in Zambia, which may be lamellophone tongues. Radio-carbon dating put them between the 5th and 7th centuries ce. The similar iron objects which Brian M. Fagan excavated at Kalomo and Kalundu were dated from the 10th or 11th centuries.
The dependence of constructing complex types of lamellophone on the presence of highly developed metallurgy suggests the crucial importance of regions where mining and metalworking were long established. Zimbabwe, parts of Zambia and Mozambique were regions with metallurgical centres from around the beginning of the Later Iron Age. Significantly, the earliest written sources we have about African lamellophones also come from south-east Africa.
There seem to be two historical zones of origin and dispersal of lamellophones. It might be assumed that lamellophones manufactured from materials of the raffia palm existed in west-central Africa, in Gabon, southern Cameroon and possibly eastern Nigeria before the Bantu dispersal started about 2500 years ago and that the technique spread with migrations from west-central Africa to central and south-eastern Africa where metal-manufactured versions were developed with the increase in iron technology. Lamellophones were introduced to East Africa from the Congo and, with the exception of the Ruvuma Valley along the Tanzania-Mozambique borders, only became known in East Africa at the end of the 19th century. Along the West African coast, west of the Niger delta, lamellophones were introduced between the 17th and 19th centuries when European coastal shipping brought African crewmen from other parts of the continent to that area.
In the oldest written source, Ethiopia oriental, the Portuguese missionary Frei João dos Santos (1609) gave a very detailed description of a nine-note lamellophone and reported the name ‘ambira’ from his travels in the kingdom of Kiteve (east of Zimbabwe) in 1586. Filippo Bonanni's Gabinetto armonico (1722) contains a picture of a lamellophone player, with the caption ‘Marimba de Cafri’ (probably on the coast of Mozambique).
Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira reported on a 16-note board-type lamellophone made by a slave in north Brazil during the late 18th century. The analysis of his very detailed technical drawing (fig.11) revealed that knowledge of this type must have come from south-west Angola (Kubik 1979).
More sources become available from the mid-19th century, for example in the travel writings of David Livingstone (1865), Carl Mauch (1869–72, Eng. trans., 1969) and Capello and Ivens (1881). Mauch was the first to attempt to transcribe the playing of a mbira dza vadzimu; that of a musician he heard near the ruins of Zimbabwe (Kubik, 1971).
Seven major regions can be distinguished for the geographical distribution of lamellophones. Each region is associated with specific types.
(i) Eastern Nigeria and the Cameroon grasslands.
(ii) West-Central Africa's Equatorial Zone.
(iii) Southern Central-African savanna.
(iv) The Zimbabwe-Zambezi region.
(v) Northern Mozambique and the Ruvuma valley.
(vi) East Africa: Uganda, Tanzania.
(vii) The West African diaspora.
Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries
This is a cohesive distribution area with a long history. The predominant material for constructing the instrument comes from the raffia palm. The soft pith of a raffia leaf stem is used to construct its body, while the tongues are cut from the hard outer skin. The box-shaped ‘Calabar’ lamellophones from the coast of eastern Nigeria generally have Nsibidi ideographs carved on them. A ‘chain stitch’ holding the lamellae in place is also characteristic of many instruments from this area.
The Tikar and the Vute in the Cameroon grasslands also have raffia lamellophones. Among the Vute they are tuned in paired octaves. The ubo aka of the Igbo people, exceptionally for the region, has metal tongues. The soundboard is firmly attached to the gourd-resonator, and has crescent-shaped openings on either side of the lamellae into which the player can put his hands. The organological characteristics of the Bini's asologun include a metal chain laid across the lamellae to cause sympathetic resonance.
Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries
The lamellophones of this region (from Gabon to the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo) come in innumerable shapes. They include instruments made of raffia or other vegetable materials and, especially in the south of the region, instruments with metal lamellae and wooden bodies.
One distinctive type is concentrated on the Loango coast and found among the Bafioti, the Manyombe and neighbouring ethnic groups (Laurenty, 1962; see fig.4). It is characterized by a bell-shaped resonator carved from a single piece of wood, with a rounded base. The soundhole, facing the player, is often in a half-moon shape. This has religious significance with the moon symbolizing a female transcendental being. The upper end of the resonator is bent slightly forwards, which means that the backrest can often be dispensed with or reduced. Loango lamellophones mostly have seven tongues, but sometimes as many as ten, laid out in ascending order of pitch from left to right.
By the mid-19th century a new type of lamellophone had been invented in the Lower Congo area, that is, the likembe (fig.6). Carried by personnel in the colonial service, it spread along the great rivers, together with the region's lingua franca, Lingala. Coquilhat, the first Belgian colonial agent, who installed himself in the area that became the Belgian Congo in the last decades of the 19th century, described the likembe in his book of 1888 about the upper course of the Congo river. Many specimens from the Bateke people (in the former French Congo) are held in museum collections. Late 19th-century specimens often have imported blue, hexagonal, glass beads around the iron lamellae as a buzzing device. Brass pins were often hammered into the soundboard as decoration (Kubik, Berlin, 1999). In the decade before World War I, the likembe was established everywhere along the Congo river, and known to the Kongo and Mfinu, as well as the Mbuja in the Kisangani vicinity. It had also spread along the Ubangi, where it was reported among Ng'baka musicians and the Ngbandi in 1911–13.
Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries
A striking feature of this region (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, northern parts of Zambia, Malawi central region) is the predominance of the word-stem -sansi (with variant forms and different prefixes), as well as -limba. Board lamellophones with gourd resonators were once very popular among the Luba in Katanga, but they are now largely obsolete (Gansemans, 1980, p.27). To the west of the Luba, among the Lunda, board lamellophones called cisanji are known.
Board lamellophones are almost universal throughout Angola, but other forms also exist. Among the Cokwe in the north-east is found the cisaji cakele, an elongated lamellophone made of raffia with a small number of tongues, and cisaji ca kakolondondo, a board lamellophone with raised edges, buzzing rings on a bar on the narrow side of the instrument facing the musician, and usually 10 spatula-shaped iron tongues in a V-shaped layout. The cisaji ca lungandu or cisaji ca mandumbwa, a 12-note board lamellophone with raised edges and a layout in two octave ranks (the pitch ascending from left to right), is also found there. The use of pieces of wax to adjust the tuning, especially for the lower notes, is characteristic of this type. In addition there is the mucapata, which has a bell-shaped resonator, buzzing rings on a stick across the bell opening, 17, 19 or more tongues laid out above two basic notes in up to four sections according to the principle of tonal relationship (see fig.5), and the likembe, which has a box-shaped resonator and soundhole.
The tuning of instruments in this region is hexatonic among the Luba and hexa- to heptatonic among the Cokwe and their neighbours. Various organological details of individual types support conjecture that relationships between them exist in two main directions: towards the west, to the Loango coast (see, for instance, the rounded form of the resonator in some mucapata, or the reduction of the backrest); and towards the Zambezi Valley (demonstrated in the great similarity of buzzing devices on mucapata and on matepe from Zimbabwe, the tray-shape of the kakolondondo and lugandu types, and finally, above all on the cisaja ca lungandu, the layout of lamellae in two ranks.
Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries
Thanks to the tireless work of Hugh Tracey, and later Andrew Tracey, this is the best researched part of Africa with regard to lamellophones, including their forms and histories. Lamellophones in Zimbabwe and the Zambezi Valley are either tray-shaped, such as the mbira dza vadzimu (fig.12), or have a bell-shaped resonator, such as the nyonganyonga and matepe. A historically-related zone lies to the north of the Zambezi, where the soundboard was often transformed into a fan-shape.
The body is usually carved from a single piece of wood; in many types the bell-shaped resonator is hollowed out from one direction. Andrew Tracey considers the mbira dza vadzimu as a very old, perhaps even the oldest, form of lamellophone among the Shona. In his genealogical table (1972) he distinguished an early type with the bass notes in the right-hand playing area from a later type with the bass notes in the left-hand playing area. The mbira dza vadzimu was used in connection with religious ceremonies for ancestral spirits (vadzimu). The gourd resonator is called deze, a name also often given to the instrument itself. The body is a rectangular ‘tray’, with raised edges and mostly 22 to 23 lamellae, in three ranks. Three fingers are used in playing: the two thumbs and the right-hand index finger. The index finger ‘scratches’ (kukwenya) the rank of treble lamellae on the right in an upward motion from below.
Like other Zimbabwean mbira music, music for the mbira dza vadzimu is constructed on chord sequences between four degrees displaying bi-chords in 4ths or 5ths. Many cycles cover 48 elementary pulses. Today the instrument is usually played in duet, and accompanied by rattles known as hosho. The opening part is called in Shona kushaura (‘start’, ‘lead’); the second part, which combines with the first, is played on a second mbira and called kutsinhira (‘exchange’, ‘sing a refrain’). The vocal part often includes yodelling (kunguridzira in Shona) and ‘singing the bass’ (kuhongera).
Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries
Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries
Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries
See also Marimba, §1.
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