of the Western
scale, is widely used (see Table 1 for a comparison of Western and Thai
tuning systems). Country in South-east Asia. It is bordered by Myanmar (Burma) to the west, Laos and Cambodia to the east and Malaysia to the south. The population is a mixture of Thai people from southern China, indigenous peoples of the region and peoples from the kingdoms of Srivijaya (6th–14th century) in the south, Yonok Chiang-saen (8th–12th century) in the north, the Mon kingdom of Davaravati (6th–11th century) in the central region and the Khom (ancient Khmer) tradition. Thai culture is predominantly agricultural and based on Theravāda Buddhism.
Thailand’s first capital city was established at Sukhothai in the north, from 1238 to 1378. Music of this period was highly developed; most present-day instrument types were in use, including the three-string fiddle so sām sāi for court music and an older type of pī phāt ensemble for ritual music. The second capital city, Ayutthaya, was located in the central region and remained the capital for 417 years (1350–1767). During this period art, literature, music and drama became standardized including the performance genres of khōn (masked drama), lakhon (stage drama) anad nang (large shadow puppet theatre), as well as instrumental ensembles, musical compositions, aspects of performing practice and the functions of music. The pī phāt ensemble was widely used, with the ceremonial suite phlēng ruang as its main repertory. Mahōrī, the court music ensemble that combines strings, flute and melodic percussion, began in a quartet format (mahōrī khruang sāi), becoming standardized by the middle of the Ayutthaya period.
The capital was established at Thonburi for 15 years before it was moved to Krungthep (Bangkok) in 1782. The most important musical event was the creation of the tri-partite form thao in the mid-19th century by Pra Pradit Phairau and the development of contemporary virtuoso performance technique in the early 20th century by Luang Pradit Phairau. Although the Thai people were in contact with Western culture from the middle of the Ayutthaya period, Western music appears not to have influenced Thai music until the reign of King Rama IV of Bangkok (1851–67), when the military band tradition was established and taught by Western music teachers.
II. Regional and popular music
PANYA ROONGRUANG
Originally composed as court music, Thai classical music is also performed outside the court. There are many kinds of ensembles, used according to the particular social context; the three most prominent are pī phāt (percussion and oboe), khruang sāi (strings, percussion and flute) and mahōrī (strings, flute and percussion). Each may be divided into sub-types based on their size and instrumentation.
The notation of Thai classical music in Western staff format began in 1930 at the same time as Thai cipher notation was created by Luang Pradit Phairau; cipher notation was further developed by later Thai musicians. Currently two types of notation (cipher and alphabetical) are widely used at the beginning level of study along with oral methods. Once a student has memorized a piece and its style, then notation is no longer used.
The main patrons of classical music were formerly the court and the noble class working with the king, as well as common people who hired musicians for seasonal ritual ceremonies. After the revolution in 1932 the court no longer supported music; its patronage was replaced by governmental institutions of music and drama.
In order to survive, traditional performing arts have had to adapt to social change. Adaptations have included the staging of performances and the addition of pop songs and Western instruments, for example the incorporation of drum kit and guitar in northern mo lam sing and the inclusion of drumkit, keyboard and sometimes guitar to southern nōrā and central likē. Theatrical stories and costumes have been modernized. Beginning in 1987 classical and regional musics have been included in the educational system. Classical music is still performed on many occasions, particularly during ritual ceremonies, for tourists and to entertain patrons in hotels and restaurants. People listen mostly to popular music of many styles but revere classical music as a symbol of Thai culture.
The percussive instruments common to all kinds of ensembles are a pair of small hand cymbals (ching) that outline the metre (the sound ‘ching’ occurs on the upbeat and ‘chap’ on the accented downbeat); a pair of small cymbals (chāp) that play an interlocking pattern with the ching; a pair of wooden sticks (krap) that are struck together at the same time as the damped downbeat stroke of the ching; many kinds of drums (klong) which control musical structure by playing cycles of rhythmic patterns called natab; and, finally, a single gong (mōng) to mark the end of the rhythmic pattern.
The essential instruments in the pī phāt ensemble include two circular gong-chimes, the larger (khong wong yai) consisting of 16 tuned bossed gongs and the smaller (khong wong lek) of 18 gongs. The gongs are placed horizontally in a circular frame laid on the floor and played with two disc-shaped mallets; the player sits in the centre of the circle of gongs. There are two sizes of xylophone: ranāt ēk, which is the higher-pitched and has 21 wooden keys on a boat-shaped wooden resonator, and ranāt thum, lower-pitched and with 16 keys on a rectangular, box-shaped resonator. The keys are strung on cords that are hung over hooks on the endboards and are played with two padded mallets. The quadruple-reed oboe (pī nai; fig.1) has a wooden body that flares out at each end and bulges slightly in the middle, with a cylindrical bore and six fingerholes. The drums used in pī phāt comprise taphōn, a double-headed drum on a stand, two klong that (large barrel drums) and sometimes a long, double-headed barrel drum (Klong song nā).
There are five types of pī phāt ensemble. Pī phāt khruang hā (fig.2) is the smallest, consisting of a quintet of khong wong yai, ranāt ēk, pī nai, ching, taphōn and klong that. Pī phāt khruang khū, the double pī phāt, consists of both circular gong-chimes, both xylophones and one oboe. Pī phāt khruang yai, the large pī phāt (fig.3), consists of the instruments of khruang khū plus two metallophones, ranāt ēk lek and ranāt thum lek. These three types of pī phāt may be played with either soft or hard beaters to provide a soft or loud sound and are called pī phāt mai nuam and pī phāt mai khaeng accordingly. The funeral ensemble pī phāt nāng hong consists of the essential instruments of pī phāt khruang khū but with the pī nai replaced by pī chawā oboe and the addition of two klong malāyū, double-headed drums with cow-skin heads. Pī phāt dųk dam ban, the soft indoor pī phāt, consists of two xylophones, large circular gong-chime, low-pitched metallophone (all played with soft mallets), khlui ū (large flute), so ū (low-pitched fiddle), two taphōn drums played with soft sticks, and khong hui, a set of seven large gongs, graduated in size.
Pī phāt mon (fig.4) is a special type of pī phāt derived from Mon tradition and is widely used for funerals and cremations. It consists of khong mon, a U-shaped circular gong-chime, taphōn mon, a large double-headed drum, pī mon, a large oboe with a metal bell, poeng māng khok, a set of graduated, double-headed drums hung on a circular frame, and large and small cymbals.
This ensemble combines flute and percussion with strings; other instruments, even Western ones, may also be added. The leading instrument is the so duang, a two-string, high-pitched, bowed lute, made of wood (fig.5). It has a cylindrical soundbox, the front of which is covered with snakeskin. A horsehair bow is placed between the two silk strings. The secondary bowed lute is the low-pitched so ū which has decoratively carved soundholes and a soundbox made of coconut-shell, the front of which is covered with calfskin. The plucked zither čhakhē has three strings, two made of silk and the third made of brass. These strings are placed on a small piece of bamboo that is laid on the bridge over the soundbox to provide a buzzing sound when played. The duct flute khlui is made of bamboo, wood or even plastic and has seven fingerholes. Khlui are made in four sizes: khlui ū (largest), khlui phīang o (medium-sized), khlui līp (small) and khlui krūat (smallest); only the medium and small sizes are commonly used. A rhythmic pattern is played by a pair of drums, a goblet drum called thōn and a frame drum called rammanā.
The khruang sāi ensemble exists in two sizes: the small ensemble, with one of each essential instrument, and a double ensemble (two of each). Other instruments may also be included, such as the dulcimer (khim), organ or violin, in which case the ensemble is called wong khruang sāi prasom (mixed string ensemble). Khruang sāi pī chawā replaces the flute with the double-reed oboe of the same name.
This ensemble mixes the instruments of the khruang sāiand the pī phāt, with the exception of the oboe. The circular gong-chime and xylophones were formerly smaller in size because they were played by females at court. As the instruments are now played by both males and females, regular-sized instruments are also used. One important instrument of this ensemble is the three-string fiddle so sām sāi (fig.6) with a coconut-shell soundbox covered with cow- or goat-skin and without a soundhole. The long cylindrical neck passes through the soundbox and is attached to the foot of the instrument, and the three silk strings, played with a bow separated from the fiddle, are attached to three tuning pegs on the top. The player turns the instrument while playing instead of changing the bow angle. The so sām sāi always plays with the ensemble, accompanying the vocalist. Sometimes the kračhappī (long-necked plucked lute) is also included. The mahōrī also exists in three sizes: small, medium and large.
The
Thai tuning system has seven equidistant pitches, the interval between any two
pitches being ideally 171·4 cents (slightly more or less in practice). Thai
music is highly ornamented, particularly the performance styles of string and
wind instruments, so that the pitches between the seven basic tones are also
used. The pī phāt is tuned to the pī (oboe) and
the khruang sāi and mahōrī to the khlui
(flute). A standard pitch for the tonic note of thang phiang ao, close
to B of the Western
scale, is widely used (see Table 1 for a comparison of Western and Thai
tuning systems).
Seven scales (thang) are built on each pitch of the tuning system. The seven thang are called thang nai lot, thang nai (for normal pī phāt), thang-klang (for large pī phāt), thang phiang ao (for khruang sāiand mahōrī), thang nawk (for outdoor pī phāt), thang haep and thang lip.
There are three prominent proportional tempos (chan): sām chan, song chan and chan dieo. Sām chan is twice the length of song chan and four times that of chan dieo; each may be played at slow, medium or fast speeds depending on the ensemble and type of composition. Pieces played by pī phāt ensemble are always faster than those of the khruang sāi and mahōrī. The proportion between each chan is articulated by the rhythmic pattern called nathap, which is continuously played by one or a set of drums throughout a section or piece. Three main types of nathap are used: piset, prop kai and song mai. Nathap piset is used for ritual music, some theatrical music and music with a ‘foreign accent’. Prop kai is twice the length of song mai; both are organized into sām chan, song chan and chan dieo and used for any secular music. One cycle of a particular nathap consists of many sets of drum strokes; each stroke has a name, such as tang, ting, jong, jah or tha. One cycle of nathab prop kai sām chan consists of four sets of drum strokes, whereas song mai sām chan consists of two sets (ex.1). An accented beat occurs every 4, 8 or 16 beats. The frequency depends on the chan and is articulated by the dampened stroke of ching; the strongest beat is at the end of the cycle of nathap and is marked by a single gong (mōng). One cycle of nathap is called čhangwa; a piece or a section of a piece may have many čhangwa. The music is normally notated with four beats per bar and eight bars per line (ex.2). One jangwa of prop kai sām chan consists of two lines, song chan one line and chan dieo half a line.
Thai music is linear and non-harmonic: each instrument plays its own specific idiom based on a common principal melody. In the pī phāt ensemble this principal melody is played by the khong wong yai, while instruments such as the ranāt ēk, ranāt thum, khong wong lek, so duang and so ū elaborate this melody with their decoration and ornamentation. The principal skeletal melody played by the khong wong yai is based on the rhythmic pattern (nathap). For example, nathap sōng mai sām chan consists of two sets of drum patterns that fit two principal melodic structures; each structure consists of four measures of Thai notation broken down into two smaller sections of two measures each. The last note of each section is the most significant and is called siang tok or luk tok. The fast-moving instruments such as ranāt ēk and so duang play the full pre-composed melody or recreate it within the boundaries of an appropriate idiom, maintaining the same siang tok as the principal melody. The slow-moving instruments such as ranāt thum and ranāt thum lek play in their own idioms, also observing the same siang tok, producing complex polyphony (ex.3).
Idiomatic instrumental style is one of the most important elements of Thai music. The idiom of each instrument differs to a greater or lesser degree from other instruments in the timbral character of the instrument and its technical limitations. For example, the ranāt ēk has a high-pitched, strong, bright sound in three octaves and can play in a more ornamented and complex style than the ranāt thum, which has a low, mellow sound and a range of only two octaves. Musicians learn the appropriate idioms from their teacher and from listening to the music of numerous ensembles before they are able to re-create the idioms themselves. A brief example of different idiomatic instrumental rendering of notes 6, 1, 2 and 3 is given in ex.4.
One melody can be rendered in several different instrumental idioms, not only in traditional classical style but also in regional and international styles, which are called samniang phāsā (‘foreign accent’). Thai musicians have borrowed from various cultures elements such as musical instruments and language, tunes and musical idioms, and have either re-created them in Thai versions or have created new, ‘exotic’ music based on those elements. Specific pieces include čhīn khim lek (Čhīn referring to Chinese influence), Lao duang doen, Khamēn sai yoke (Khamēn, Cambodian) and Farang ram thao (Farang, Western). The inclusion of nationality in the title of the piece suggests the scales, rhythmic patterns and instrumental idioms to be played in a particular composition; this may also include percussion borrowed from the tradition concerned. A traditional Thai piece could be played in any samniang pasa by developing new musical idioms according to the particular ‘foreign accents’.
There are two main types of compositions: those that are highly motivic, with unarticulated phrasing, and more lyrical pieces with clear cadences; the latter are known to the general public and often arranged for other media.
This instrumental music is performed only on pī phāt mai khaeng (loud-style pī phāt), using a special rhythmic pattern (nathap piset taphōn klong) played by the double-headed taphōn drum and two klōng that barrel drums. Phlēng naphat is divided into two types, high and normal. High naphat is usually performed in Buddhist ritual ceremonies (e.g. paying homage to the teacher) and some is included in the overture genre phlēng hōm rōng. Normal naphat (together with some high naphat) is used to accompany stage drama (lakhon) and mask drama (khōn). Phlēng naphat was probably created in the 13th century.
This is an old, motivic style of instrumental suite, existing at least since the 14th century. About 60 suites are still practised, consisting of several pieces in each of three tempos: slow plēng chā, medium song mai and fast plēng reo. They are the main sources of original tunes developed into thao form in the mid-19th century.
This instrumental overture genre is divided into three types: ritual, theatrical and purely musical. The ritual type is performed at Buddhist ceremonies such as hōm rōng chao (prelude in the morning), hōm rōng klang wan (prelude at noon), hōm rōng yen (evening) and as prelude to chanting (hōm rōng tet); it is normally played by pī phāt mai khaeng. Theatrical overtures are performed before a stage drama, masked dance or puppet performance. Musical overtures have a specific form and are performed to greet the music teacher, welcome the audience and warm up the musicians. This kind of overture is always in prop kai sām chan tempo and closes with a coda (wa).
This entertainment suite consists of many short pieces, usually performed with a vocalist. There are two types: a narrative suite (tap ruang) with vocalist, and a musical suite (tap phlēng) in which the main focus is the music itself, with or without vocalist. Each piece in a suite is in the same thang and tempo.
This tri-partite form was created in the mid-19th century. It begins in a slow tempo level (sām chan) and proceeds to a medium (song chan), then fast tempo (chan dieo), usually ending with a fast coda (ex.5). Each tempo level consists of one or more sections based on the same principal melody and ending with the same cadence. The song chan sections consist mostly of original tunes extracted from the old phlēng ruang, which are extended in the slow section, while the fast section is a condensed version. Thao may be performed by any kind of ensemble as entertainment music with or without vocalist (see als South-east Asia, §4(ii)).
This major work consists of many sections in a special musical form called thayoi, in which the melodic line is played in a call-and-response style and ends with a joint statement of the melody (luk yōn) before shifting to another mode for the new statement (ex.6). The entire piece may either be in the form of an overture, thao, or in many sections in sām chan tempo. The rhythmic pattern is usually of the song mai type, and pieces may or may not include singing.
This solo genre consists of one or many sections in thao form or simply in sām chan tempo and requires highly skilled performers. There are two main parts in each section: a slow, sweet section (thang wān) and an exciting, fast section (thang kep). The solo instruments (e.g. ranāt ēk, so sām sāi) are usually accompanied by ching and drums.
This farewell music usually includes singing and is performed at the end of a concert. Pieces include a special musical style called dok, in which the vocalist sings a farewell verse, the melody of which is repeated by a solo instrument. Pieces are usually in thao form.
These are miscellaneous pieces that do not fit into any other genre; most are extracts from suites or thao, although some are created separately. They are performed in concert or to accompany drama. Some short phlēng klet are known as phlēng hang kruang and are usually played after the main piece in order to prolong the music for the audience's enjoyment.
Vocal sections in the genres mentioned above are usually accompanied by ching and drum and, in the mahōrī ensemble, three-string fiddle so sām sāi. The vocal quality is without vibrato and uses frequent glottal sounds, particularly a falsetto glottal ornament at the end of a held pitch, which is often a third higher than the principal pitch. An acoustically complex, highly ornamented melismatic style without vibrato (on) occurs especially in sām chan and less in song chan and chan dieo. Song texts are from well-known Thai poetry, although occasionally a new poem is composed for a special occasion. There are four vocal styles in Thai music: rong song, a vocal section with essentially the same pitch structure as the more complex ornamented instrumental sections that follow; rong khlao, a vocal section accompanied by instruments playing a different melodic line; rong khlaw, in which vocal and instrumental lines have the same melody; and rong nua tem, in which each syllable of text matches each note of the instrumental line without melisma; this style has been incorporated into popular music.
Classical music is performed for ritual ceremonies, funerals, various forms of theatre and entertainment.
Ceremonies and festivals always require Buddhist rites, which include music. The particular details and order of events depend on the kind of ceremony, but generally speaking all usually last for three days or more, beginning on the first day with an evening prelude by the pī phāt ensemble followed by the evening chant of a group of five or nine monks. Music is prohibited for monks, and such unaccompanied chant is not recognized as song. In the meantime, ensembles provide entertainment music (sēpha) consisting of phlēng ruang, phlēng tap or phlēng thao; the next morning they perform the morning prelude before the food offering for the monks, also playing music during breakfast, for the arrival and departure of the monks and, accompany other rituals that may take place. Ritual music at court features the same types of ensembles and special ensembles, such as a group of conch shells and bronze drums. One important ritual for all Thai musicians is the ceremony of paying homage to the teacher (wai khru), during which the most important and highest level naphat music is played.
The ensemble that performs for Buddhist funeral ceremonies is the pī phāt nāng hong, which plays a piece of the same name, or the pī phāt mon, which plays mon-style music. Sometimes the special bua loi ensemble is featured, consisting of a pair of double-headed drums played with hands and sticks, the pī chawā oboe and a single thick gong, khong mēng. The ensemble plays the piece bua loi. For a cremation ceremony given by the king, a set of four drums played with sticks and a pī chawā are added.
Music accompanies many kinds of drama (lakhon), including street drama (lakhon nok), court drama (lakhon nai), masked drama (khōn), bamboo puppet theatre (hun krabok) and miniature drama (lakhon lek). The ensemble most often used is the pī phāt, with hard or soft beaters depending on the story, events and mood of the drama. Three genres of music are associated with the theatre: the overture hōm rōng (morning, afternoon and evening types depending on the time and types of theatre), music accompanying the characters' movements (naphat) and miscellaneous pieces (phlēng klet) in song chan with the text sung by a solo vocalist or chorus.
Formerly sēphā referred to a repartee genre accompanied by music; now that the genre is obsolete, the term is used to refer to music performance for entertainment. Although the main function of a ceremonial ensemble is to accompany ritual, it also provides entertainment music. All genres are performed except naphat. Competitions used to occur in which several ensembles were hired and in which the skills and abilities of the musicians were displayed as the ensembles played pieces ranging from standard to the highest level. The modern idea of stage performance began in the late 19th century, with musical interludes between acts of modern stage dramas later developing into separate performances. Currently recorded music is the most popular entertainment music; live performances are more rare.
Although the composers of older Thai tunes are anonymous, as Thai custom precluded revealing the composer's name (a similar situation applied to Thai literature), the composers of the Bangkok period are well known among musicians, scholars and classical music lovers. Compositions are generally not written down, and many composers create the piece in a generic version, which individual musicians then perform within their own instrumental idiom. Some composers have used notation: Luang Pradit Phairau (1881–1954) notated his music in cipher notation, where as Montri Tramote used staff notation. Most composers have their own ensemble and teach their musicians to play a particular idiom for each instrument, so that the piece is completely composed in full orchestration. Some of the best known composers of Thai music include King Prajatipok (Rama VII, 1893–1941), composer of Hōm rōng khluen kratop fang (‘Sound of the Surf’ overture), Ratri pradap dao (‘Starlit Night’) and Khamen la-o ong (‘Refined One’); Pra Pradit Phairau, the first to compose in the sam chan style (the origin of thao form); Luang Pradit Phairau, the founder of Thai notation and the modern style of Thai music performance, whose musical style and compositions are part of common performing practice; and Montri Tramote (1908–95), a composer of the late 20th century who specialized in dance music.
Each region has its own unique styles of performing arts based on traditions from the remote past. Such music and dance fits the lifestyle of an agricultural society and is only well known among regional peoples. Modernization and social changes have necessitated changes in these musics in order for them to survive; most are now preserved by the cultural centres established by the government in each province.
Mainstream northern music is in the Lan na tradition. The three main types of music are entertainment, processional and ritual music.
Entertainment music is widely used for many occasions. The ensemble wong salo includes one or more of three main melodic instruments: salo, a two-string spike fiddle with separate bow and coconut-shell resonator; sueng, a wooden lute with brass strings; and pī, a side-blown, free-reed aerophone made from bamboo. Sometimes a small flute, khlui, is added and accompanied by a double-headed drum on a stand. The ensemble may play alone or with voice. Another ensemble used for entertainment is the pī ensemble (pī čhum), which consists of four or more different sizes of pī with or without singing.
Processional music is performed by several kinds of ensembles, the most prominent consisting of klong ae or tueng nong (a huge, single-headed, long-waisted drum), ma lot pot or ta lot pot (a long, double-headed drum), large- and medium-sized gongs, large cymbals and one or two sizes of quadruple-reed oboe. This ensemble accompanies most kinds of processions, especially processions of the Buddha's image; it also accompanies the nail dance (on lep) and candle dance (fon thian). The teng thing ritual ensemble is usually found in Buddhist monasteries and is named after the sound of the teng thing barrel drum. Melodic instruments include two sizes of xylophone (phat ek and phat tum), one or two circular gong-chimes (phat kong), one or two double-reed oboes (nae) and small and large cymbals.
Solo instruments include a musical bow with two or more brass strings and a coconut-shell resonator that is attached to the player's chest when played (phīn phia), and a large frame drum on a beam (klong sa bat chai), which is carried by two men and played by another with a pair of soft beaters in an elaborate style.
Northern folk tunes are pentatonic, simple and short, usually repeated many times to extend the length. The two prominent kinds of vocal music are joi and so; joi is used mostly for ceremonies and so (Lit. ‘to sing’) for any occasion. Usually accompanied by a solo instrument or ensemble, these are sung in local dialect. So can be sung by a solo vocalist, as male and female repartee or in a play (lakhon so) by a group of performers, although performance has declined.
North-eastern Thailand is divided into two parts. The upper part includes the main area of this region, which is Lao-influenced and which features khaen (bamboo mouth organ) and mo lam (repartee genre) performance; the lower part includes three provinces next to the Cambodian border, which are Khmer influenced and where music of the kantrum ensemble is prominent.
The Khaen is the most widely used instrument in the upper part of the region. It is played alone, in ensembles and to accompany singers (see Laos, §6.) The pong lang is a log xylophone made of hard wood, which is hung vertically on a stand and played with a pair of hard wooden beaters. It is usually played in ensembles that consist of khaen, a plucked long-necked lute made of soft wood (phīn), a drum (klong hang), cymbals (sing) and a pair of concussion sticks (kap kaep).
Mo lam is a vocal repartee style sung in local dialect by male and female singers and accompanied by the khaen. Two basic types of singing (lam) are practised, lam thang san (fast) and lam thang yao (slow). Lam includes courtship, didactic and narrative songs. Mo lam is performed on many different occasions, and during the last decade of the 20th century a modern style of mo lam (mo lam sing) was developed, incorporating drum kit and electric guitar.
The most prominent music of the lower north-east region is kantrum, named after the pair of double-headed drums played in the ensemble. Other instruments include one or more Khmer-style fiddles (trua), double-reed bamboo oboe (paey aw), small cymbals and one or two pairs of sticks (krap) played by a performer who sometimes also dances. The kantrum of Koktachai district in Buriram province includes a local crocodile-shaped zither (ta kay), a long-necked lute made of soft wood with brass strings (jap pei) and a quadruple-reed oboe (pī). A funeral ensemble found in this area is called tum mong and consists of a set of seven gongs, large barrel drum and a large single gong with or without a wind instrument. The vocal music jariang is normally accompanied by jab pei or an ensemble.
Many kinds of vocal repartee are found all over this region. These folksongs are usually sung during seasonal ceremonies and include harvest songs (phlēng kiao khao) and boat songs (phlēng rua). A group of performers is divided into male and female sections, within which members take turns as lead singer. The leader sings a pre-composed text as well as adding impromptu text suited to the situation, while the rest sing a refrain, sometimes with percussion accompaniment. Because of changes in farming practices, songs that pertain to the agricultural cycle have mostly disappeared, although some are being actively preserved by the government. Two of this genre, phlēng choi and lam tat, are used in stage performances. The lam tat is accompanied by two or more large frame drums (rammanā) played by hand. Subjects of the texts include religion, stories, social events, sex and comedy.
Important theatrical arts include likē, a type of folk opera in which the performers sing and dance, accompanied by small pī phāt, and the folk drama lakhon chātrī, which is accompanied by pī phāt chātrī.
The main artist forms of southern Thailand are theatrical. Nōrā is a stage drama with three main characters with colourful costumes, headdresses and long fingernails. Characters perform many standard gestures and usually portray the story of Prasuthon Manohra. Nang talung is a type of small shadow-puppet theatre. The puppets are cut from cowhide, colourfully painted and manipulated behind a white screen by a puppeteer who also sings and narrates the story. The ensemble for both nōrā and nang talung consists of a small quadruple-reed pī oboe (fiddle is also included in nang talung), a pair of single-headed drums (tab), one or two klong nāng (small barrel drums; thōn are substituted in puppet theatre), a pair of small gongs (mōng khū) and small cymbals (ching). A funeral music called gaelaw consists of one oboe (pī haw), a pair of small barrel drums (thōn) and a single gong. Other folksong genres are phlēng bawk, phlēng cha nawng and pleng rong rua.
Western-style jazz-influenced popular music was introduced in the first half of the 20th century by the students of Phra Jan Duriyang (Peter Fiet), who laid the foundations for Western music in Thailand. The earliest indigenous popular song developed after World War II from the melodic singing style (rong nua tem) of classical music. The singer was accompanied by a Thai string ensemble, to which were added Western instruments such as organ and violin. Songs were performed as preludes and interludes in modern theatrical presentations. The two main styles of popular song were the polished urban lūk krung and the rural lūk thung, which contained more elements of folk music. Pop songs now derive from many sources, including classical and regional Thai music and popular music of the United States and Hong Kong.
GEWM (T. Miller)
HDM2 (D. Morton)
A.J. Ellis: ‘Tonometrical Observations on some Existing Non-Harmonic Scales’, Proceedings of the Society of Arts, xxvii (1884), 368–85
A.J. Ellis: ‘On the Musical Scales of Various Nations’, Journal of the Society of Arts, xxxiii (1885), 485–527; appx, 1102–11
F.W. Verney: Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments (London, 1885)
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