(Ger. München).
City in southern Germany, capital of the state of Bavaria.
5. Musical education and musicology.
HORST LEUCHTMANN (1), ROBERT MÜNSTER (2–5)
Munich was the seat of the dukes of Upper Bavaria from 1255, and the capital of the whole duchy from 1550. Records of early musical activity in the city are sparse. Since the parish schools taught singing as well as Latin and German, it may be assumed that music was heard at services in the oldest church in Munich, St Peter’s (first mentioned 1225), from an early date. The parish of Munich was divided in 1271 and the little Marienkapelle became the parish church of Our Lady (Frauenkirche, or Unsere Liebe Frau). Gregorian chant (in the so-called Germanic dialect) is reported as being sung in both churches and in the Franciscan friary on the Anger at about this period. In 1384 St Peter’s acquired a new, larger organ and the new Frauenkirche (built 1468–88) had a splendid instrument installed in 1491, which was mentioned by Zarlino (Supplementi musicali, 1588).
Equally little is known of the music enjoyed by the citizens. It is safe to assume that domestic music-making was carried on, but there is no extant record of it. The city normally maintained four pipers and one drummer for all public and private occasions; they were sometimes augmented by the court trumpeters, just as the city pipers helped out at court on occasion. It was not unknown for a city piper to be in the court service at the same time. The head of the Bavarian musicians' guild, the Spielgraf, was always one of the court trumpeters from the 15th century onwards. The city musicians did not in any case form a guild until after the Thirty Years War. The art of Meistergesang did not flourish to any notable extent in Munich, although Hans Sachs studied there under the linen weaver and Meistersinger Nunnenbeck.
The music of the court is the most fully documented: the trumpeters and drummers essential to the court's dignity are on record as permanent members of the household at an earlier date than the chapel musicians. Itinerant minstrels were well received. Music at the court of Munich began to flourish in the 15th century, when Conrad Paumann was the court organist. The first evidence of a chapel of priests and clerks comes from the time of Duke Albrecht IV (1465/1467–1508); it included two Bavarian musicians who had formerly worked in London. Closer connections with the court of Burgundy were fostered by the engagement of Ludwig Senfl, previously a singer in, and director of, the court chapel of Emperor Maximilian I. The Kantorei of singers and instrumentalists which he built up was independent of clerical control; it provided secular entertainment as well as fulfilling religious duties and was capable of performing the large repertory of the age. After Senfl's death the standing of the chapel waned, but it revived with the advent of Lassus. The earliest record of his residence in Munich is 1557, and under him music in Bavaria rose to a high level of importance. He was officially appointed Hofkapellmeister in 1563 and vigorously set about reorganizing the Kantorei. From then on Munich was a musical centre of significance, with a chapel that could stand comparison with those of the emperor, the King of France and even the pope. The summit of its achievement under Lassus was the music for the wedding of Wilhelm, the duke's heir, and Renata of Lorraine in 1568. On this occasion the Kantorei was built up to larger numbers than ever before (see fig.1).
The court of Munich was European in its musical outlook. Lassus, by birth a Walloon and educated in Italy, composed in all the national styles of the age and directed an ensemble which originally had a strong Netherlandish contingent but gradually recruited more and more Italians. Duke Albrecht V (1550–79) founded Munich's reputation as a home of the arts, not only by his generous endowment of music at court, but also by his collections, which form the nucleus of the present-day Bavarian state library, the state art collections and other institutions. Adam Berg opened his printing house in 1564 and founded Munich's reputation as a publishing centre, particularly with his music publications, including numerous editions of Lassus's works. Munich had much to offer to the musicians it attracted from abroad: Andrea Gabrieli and his nephew Giovanni were among those who played under Lassus. For two years after 1568 Duke Albrecht and his son maintained a chapel each, the latter employing at his residence in Landshut some of the musicians originally engaged to augment the chapel for his wedding. As this proved prohibitively expensive, Wilhelm had to give up his chapel, and from then on the Munich Kantorei continually oscillated between reductions and increases in numbers until the accession of Duke Maximilian (1597), when the musical establishment was finally cut and the great efflorescence of Bavarian music ended. Lassus had succeeded Ludwig Daser as Kapellmeister; his own successors, up to the middle of the 17th century, were his deputy Fossa, his son and grandson, both Ferdinand, Giovanni Battista Crivelli and Giovanni Giacomo Porro.
The church music of 16th-century Munich did not flourish with the music at court. Polyphony with instrumental accompaniment was heard in the Frauenkirche in the mid-15th century, but it was rare before the end of the century, not least for financial reasons. On festive occasions the churches had to help each other out or call on the court musicians or the city pipers if they wanted to perform polyphonic music, and great events like the funeral of Albrecht V in 1579 were accompanied only by choral monody. The reform of church music, after the introduction of the Roman rite laid down by the Council of Trent, began at the court in 1581, with the parish churches following suit in the early 17th century, and eventually polyphony became the rule in all the churches, though it did not gain a footing in St Peter’s until about 1635.
Religious life took on new impetus with the arrival of the Jesuits, whom Albrecht V invited to Munich in 1559. Before the end of the year they had opened a grammar school and an educational institute for poor scholars; they recruited court musicians to teach music. The free tuition and the academic standards of the Jesuits immediately deprived the parish schools of pupils, fees and choirboys. The Jesuit church, St Michael’s (consecrated 1597), became the centre of church music in Munich. The Jesuits' Latin plays, with casts of hundreds, also attracted attention away from the plays performed in the Rathaus by the city poet and his pupils, travelling players or craftsmen (Esther 1567, Samson 1568, Cenodoxus 1607). Lassus probably composed choruses for some of the Jesuit plays.
The Corpus Christi processions held since 1343 had become occasions of great splendour, for which the court made itself solely responsible, providing the costumes, paying most of the cost of the ostentatious decorations and employing the full strength of the court musicians, beside whom the four city pipers could not hope to shine. In this way the music of the townspeople and of the two parish churches was overshadowed by that of the court and the Jesuits, and was unable to develop independently. The Thirty Years War, which reduced the whole of Germany to cultural stagnation, also hindered the advent of Italian opera in Munich, so that the next stage in the musical history of the city did not begin until the second half of the 17th century.
Music at court benefited greatly from the enthusiasm of Henriette Adelheid of Savoy, the wife of the elector's son and heir, Ferdinand Maria. Concerts, musical theatre and ballet were performed, including Maccioni's dramatic cantata L'arpa festante (1653) and La ninfa ritrosa (perhaps by Zambonini, 1654). In 1654 the Opernhaus am Salvatorplatz (also known as the Salvatortheater) was completed (fig.3); it was not closed until 1799, by when it had fallen into disrepair. The magnificent productions mounted there, under the direction of the Hofkapellmeister Kerll, put the Munich court opera on a level equal to any in Europe. Kerll's own operas and those of his successor Ercole Bernabei (Hofkapellmeister 1674–87) are lost, but some scores by Steffani (Kammermusikdirektor 1681–8) and Giuseppe Antonio Bernabei (Hofkapellmeister 1688–1732) have survived. Changes resulted from the appointment of Elector Maximilian II Emmanuel (1680–1726) as governor of the southern Netherlands and from the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14): the electoral chamber musicians, under Pietro Torri and later E.F. dall'Abaco, followed the elector to Brussels and to exile in France; virtually the only music still performed at court in Munich, under G.A. Bernabei, was at religious services. During the Austrian occupation opera was performed in German by travelling companies, augmented by such individual court musicians as Schuechbauer. Meanwhile at the elector's court in the Netherlands a taste for the French style in the manner of Lully, which had already gained ground in Munich, finally prevailed. Prominent composers of instrumental music of the early years of the century included, besides dall'Abaco, Brescianello, Pez and Mayr.
On Maximilian's return in 1715 a number of French musicians also came to Munich, among them Jacques Loeillet who remained in the service of the court until 1732. Music and drama at court revived in the years up to 1726, with such sumptuous productions as the operas by Torri (Hofkapellmeister 1732–7) and Albinoni performed on the occasion of the marriage of the heir apparent, Karl Albrecht (1722), with magnificent sets by Giuseppe Galli-Bibiena. During the electorate of Karl Albrecht (1726–45; emperor from 1742) musical pursuits at the court continued, with a distinct return to the Italian style. They were interrupted once again by the unhappy outcome of the War of the Austrian Succession (1741–5) and the two-year exile of Karl Albrecht, but under Maximilian III Joseph (1747–77), a zealous patron of music, the court musicians were again brought up to full strength after a few years. The elector, himself a musician and a composer, preferred Neapolitan opera. Besides the composers who were in the elector's service, Porta (Hofkapellmeister 1737–55), Ferrandini, Francesco Peli, Aliprandi and Bernasconi (Hofkapellmeister 1755–84), music was commissioned from Sales, Antonio Tozzi, Traetta, Sacchini and others. Germans who wrote for the stage included J.A. Camerloher, F.C.T. Cröner, Joseph Michl, Naumann and the elector's sister, Maria Antonia Walpurgis of Saxony. The only Gluck work heard, apart from performances by travelling companies, was a much-adapted Orfeo given during Carnival 1773. On the other hand Mozart's La finta giardiniera (Salvatortheater, 1775) was commissioned for the programme of opera buffa initiated at his own risk by the Intendant of court music, Count Seeau. The Residenztheater (fig.4) in the electoral palace, also known as the Cuvilliéstheater, was opened in 1753; it was destroyed in World War II but rebuilt on the original pattern and reopened in 1958.
The elector’s cousin Duke Clemens of Bavaria (d 1770) also maintained his own ensemble of singers and instrumentalists at this period; he patronized the education of gifted musicians generously and had close ties with the Jesuits. Some of his musicians, Holzbogen, Kirmayr, Haindl and Vogl, belonged to a circle of Munich composers who were overshadowed by the Mannheim composers gathered by Carl Theodor. Despite such honoured names as Cannabich and Toeschi, the Mannheim composers did not reach their former standing in Munich; they did not create anything equivalent to the Viennese Classical tradition, but with Winter, Danzi and Fränzl they prepared the ground for the Romanticism of Weber and Spohr. In 1787 Carl Theodor banned Italian opera, which had reached its peak with Mozart's Idomeneo (1781). Thereafter the repertory consisted predominantly of German translations of French and Italian operas, and of Singspiele by Schubaur, Gleissner, Destouches and Winter. Count Seeau, who encouraged German theatre, ended his 45 years in office in 1799, leaving his successor, Babo, to cope with the results of his indescribable mismanagement. In the opening years of the new century music at the court laboured under stringent economies and the ‘French requisition’ of scores and parts. In succession to Johann Friedrich Eck, Carl Cannabich, a skilful orchestral trainer, became the last electoral director of music in 1800.
The principal institutions were the Jesuit college and church of St Michael and the associated Seminarium Gregorianum, which was famous for its music teaching. Court musicians were among the teachers, and the students swelled the ranks of the chorus in the court opera. The greater part of the music for the Lenten meditations, held annually until 1774, was by Bavarian composers. Franz Xaver Murschhauser was the most important of the choirmasters and composers of church and organ music at the collegiate church of Unsere Liebe Frau. Of his successors, Christoph Hirschberger (in office 1742–56) and Joseph Adam Obermiller (1757–69) should be mentioned for their church music and their sacred dramatic works. The music at the older parish church of St Peter was reorganized from 1649 and a school of singing and instrumental playing was founded. The inventories of 1655 and 1662 testify to a comprehensive repertory, from Senfl to Kerll. Victorin and Pez were the best-known musicians at St Peter’s. Musical standards were high, particularly in the 18th century, at some of the religious houses in the city: those of the Augustines, Hieronymites and Franciscans, and the nunneries on the Anger and the Ridler Regelhaus among the female foundations. The court heard sacred music in its chapel and, on feast days, also in the Theatinerkirche (later St Kajetan), built in 1675. The scope of the repertory is indicated by a thematic catalogue compiled c1810–40, which lists the names of 89 composers. Sacred oratorios by Pampani, Bernasconi, Jommelli and Mysliveček were among those performed during Lent in the court theatre or in the chapel.
During the first decades of the 19th century there were many new musical enterprises in the city, but at the same time the standard of public taste declined. The 1787 ban on Italian opera was lifted in 1805, and that genre dominated the repertory again from 1816. The dilapidated Salvatortheater, which had closed in 1799, was pulled down in 1802; the Hof- und Nationaltheater designed by Karl von Fischer, completed in 1818, was rebuilt in 1825 (fig.6) after a fire (and again in 1963, having been destroyed in 1943). The most notable works to receive their first performances in the Residenztheater at this time were Weber's Abu Hassan (1811) and Meyerbeer's first opera Jephthas Gelübde (1812). Both composers remained in Munich for some time, Weber hoping in vain, like Mozart before him, for a conducting post. At the Isartortheater (opened 1812), under the musical direction of Peter von Lindpaintner, Singspiele and farces in the Viennese manner by Müller, Röth, Lindpaintner, Weigl and others were performed. It was closed by Ludwig I in 1825, in the interests of more lofty cultural aspirations.
After Winter's death in 1825 the direction of the operas was undertaken by Ferdinand Fränzl (retired 1826) and Joseph Stuntz. Partly because of the inefficient division of responsibility between Stuntz and the Konzertmeister Moralt, standards steadily dropped until 1836 when, under the excellent Intendant Küstner, Franz Lachner took on the fundamental reorganization of the repertory and, as a first-rate orchestral trainer, restored the court ensemble to its former heights. His own opera Catarina Cornaro was a great success. He also directed new works by Spohr, Lortzing, Marschner, Gounod and Verdi, and in spite of a personal lack of sympathy for Wagner's work he conducted the first performances there of Tannhäuser and Lohengrin. In 1864 Wagner himself was invited to Munich by Ludwig II, but his plans for the reform of the Musikschule and the Wagner Festival Theatre designed by Semper did not materialize. Wagner's extravagant style of living, at the king's expense, and the offensive behaviour of his supporters led to his having to leave the city after 18 months. Ludwig remained, notwithstanding, the chief patron of the composer and of his work. The first performances of Tristan und Isolde (1865) and Die Meistersinger (1868), conducted by Hans von Bülow, were outstanding triumphs for Wagner. Against the composer's will the king ordered the first performances of Das Rheingold (1869) and Die Walküre (1870), conducted by Franz Wüllner. Lachner, virtually ousted from office when Bülow arrived, retired in 1868; but it was he who instigated the award of the Order of Maximilian to Brahms and Wagner in 1873.
On Hermann Levi's appointment as Hofkapellmeister in 1872, Munich became one of the principal centres for the performance of Wagner's music dramas, a tradition that was carried on by such men as Zumpe, Mottl and Fischer. Richard Strauss and Kienzl also spent short periods as young men conducting the Munich opera and, like Levi, played a part in the Mozart renaissance. The Munich opera festival dates from 1875, when the Intendant Karl von Perfall organized a ‘festival summer’ with operas by Mozart, Wagner and others. The true, eventual founder was Ernst von Possart, under whom the Prinzregententheater was opened for festival performances in 1901. The last royal Generalmusikdirektor was Bruno Walter, from 1913 to 1922. The climax of his memorable term of office was the première of Pfitzner's Palestrina (1917). The Staatstheater am Gärtnerplatz, opened in 1865, was devoted to operetta.
In 1811 some of the court musicians formed the Musikalische Akademie, which still exists, and organized subscription concerts. The lack of a dominating personality as conductor and public preference for the entertaining and undemanding led to a marked decline in the number of these concerts in the 1820s, until they were abandoned altogether in 1832. By contrast the evenings of music and recitation organized by private societies giving themselves such names as ‘Harmonie’, ‘Frohsinn’ and ‘Museum’, at which famous virtuosos like Hummel and Moscheles could be heard, were always well attended. Secular choral singing was cultivated by male choral societies; at least 30 were founded by 1874, including the Liederkranz (1826), Bürgersängerzunft (1840), Liedertafel (1841) and Akademischer Gesangverein (1861). In addition to the Musikalische Akademie, revived by Lachner, the Oratorienverein, founded by Karl von Perfall in 1854 and conducted for many years by Rheinberger, the Lehrergesangverein (1878) and the Porges'scher Chorverein (1886) all organized large-scale choral concerts. Among the amateur orchestras the two outstanding were the Wilde Gung'l, founded 1864 and directed by Franz Strauss from 1875, and the Neuer Orchesterverein (1879). Concerts were given by the Musikalische Akademie in the Odeon, opened in 1828 (burnt down in 1944), and in 1893 the private Kaim orchestra inaugurated another series of symphony concerts which proved very popular and took place from 1895 in the Tonhalle (also destroyed in 1944). The conductors of this orchestra included Zumpe, Löwe and Weingartner. Mahler conducted the orchestra in the first performances of his Symphony no.4 (1901) and Symphony no.8 (1910). Towards the end of the 19th century the school of Munich composers led by Ludwig Thuille began to gain a reputation which spread beyond the city.
The secularization of the monasteries in 1803 was a setback for church music, but from 1816 Schmid and Ett at St Michael’s set a shining example in their revival of classical vocal polyphony and the resumption of the south German tradition of sacred instrumental music, especially the work of Michael Haydn. In the Frauenkirche, raised to cathedral in 1823, the choirmaster Anton Schröfl and his son Johann Baptist were equally diligent in pursuing both traditions. The Cecilian reforms in the second half of the century had a far-reaching effect on the repertory. The royal Vokalkapelle performed in the newly built court Allerheiligenkirche from 1837. It was conducted by Winter, Aiblinger and Stuntz before its reorganization in 1864, when it came under the baton of Franz Wüllner, who was replaced in 1877 by Rheinberger, much esteemed as a composer of church music. At their popular soirées the royal choir also performed some secular works. Danzi and Winter were among the first to compose music for the Lutheran church established at the court in the early years of the century. From 1843 to 1854 the Lutheran Matthäuskirche boasted one of the leading organists of the day in J.G. Herzog. A synagogue was opened in 1826 and in its early years commissioned compositions from Stuntz and Ett.
The representatives of the Munich school active in the early years of the century, such as Courvoisier, von Franckenstein and von Waltershausen, were succeeded by Haas, Kaminski and others such as Fritz Büchtger, Karl Höller, Harald Genzmer, Günther Bialas, Wilhelm Killmayer and Josef Anton Riedl, while Carl Orff and Karl Amadeus Hartmann achieved international standing. Under Knappertsbusch and Krauss the Munich opera built up a resounding reputation, specializing in the works of Richard Strauss, whose Friedenstag and Capriccio had their first performances in Munich (1938 and 1942). Until the Nationaltheater, destroyed in 1943, was reopened in 1963, the opera company played in the Prinzregententheater. Its principal conductors have included Ferdinand Leitner, Georg Solti, Ferenc Fricsay, Rudolf Kempe, Joseph Keilberth, Wolfgang Sawallisch, Peter Schneider and, from 1998, Zubin Mehta. The Staatstheater am Gärntnerplatz is devoted mainly to comic opera, operetta, ballet and musicals; musical stage works can also be heard occasionally in such other theatres as the Schauspielhaus and the Deutsches Theater. The popular puppet theatre has a tradition dating from 1859 and performs works by Haydn, Mozart and Orff.
In 1924 the Kaim orchestra became the Munich PO and it is now financed by the city. Conductors have included Pfitzner, Hausegger, Kabasta, Rosbaud, Kempe, Celibidache and, from 1999, James Levine. Orchestras founded since 1945 include the Bavarian RSO (conductors Eugen Jochum, Rafael Kubelík, Colin Davis and, from 1993, Lorin Maazel), the Radio Orchestra, the private Kurt Graunke Orchestra, later the Munich SO (which runs its own subscription concerts) and the Munich Chamber Orchestra (Hans Stadlmair and, from 1995, Christoph Poppen). The Philharmonic Choir and the Bach Choir (Karl Richter and, from 1982, Hanns-Martin Schneidt) are the best-known choral societies; the Bach Orchestra is associated with the latter.
The Capella Antiqua (disbanded 1981) and the Studio der Frühen Musik (disbanded 1977) specialized in medieval music. More recently several groups have specialized in Renaissance and Baroque music, among them the Ensemble Estampie, the Gruppe für Alte Musik, the Lassus-Kreis, the Carissimi-Consort and Concerto Vocale. The vocal ensemble Die Singphoniker has gained an international reputation in a wide repertory. Christian Döbereiner and the Bachverein (whose conductors included Karl Marx and Carl Orff) set new standards in the performance of Baroque music. The concerts and recordings of the Musica Bavarica chamber orchestra specialize in the Bavarian musical tradition since the 17th century. There are also several chamber music societies in the city. The Association for Contemporary Music founded in 1929 was re-formed in 1945 as the Studio for New Music. In 1946 Karl Amadeus Hartmann founded the internationally famous Musica Viva concerts, which champion the contemporary cause with exemplary performances. The Via Nova choir also specializes in contemporary music. In 1988 Henze founded the Münchner Biennale, a festival of music theatre held every two years. The music department of the Bayerische Akademie der Schönen Künste organizes events and concerts, often of new music.
The cathedral choir became one of the leading German a cappella choirs under Ludwig Berberich. Under his successors Johannes Hafner, Max Eham and Karl-Ludwig Nies it has concentrated on carrying out the changes in its role resulting from the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council, which have restricted the old tradition of orchestral masses. Other Catholic churches where music is important are St Michael, St Peter, St Kajetan and St Ludwig. Lutheran church music is represented by the Bach Choir, the motet choir of the Matthäuskirche and other bodies, which also include the Catholic repertory.
The theory and practice of music are taught at the Städtische Singschule (founded 1830), the Richard-Strauss-Konservatorium (formed from the Trappsches Konservatorium in 1957), and the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in München (previously the Königliche Musikschule, 1846–92, and the Akademie der Tonkunst, 1892–1946). The chair of musicology at the university has been held by Adolf Sandberger, Rudolf von Ficker, Thrasybulos Georgiades and (from 1973) Theodor Göllner; von Ficker, Georgiades and Göllner were also chairmen of the Musikhistorische Kommission of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, which is responsible for the complete Lassus edition. The Gesellschaft für Bayerische Musikgeschichte, founded in 1958, is devoted to research and publication (Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Bayern). Two more recent research institutes are the Richard-Strauss Institut der Stadt München (1983) and the Orff-Zentrum (1990). The complete edition of Wagner's works is appearing under the auspices of the Bayerische Akademie der Schönen Künste. The music collections of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek and the Städtische Musikbibliothek contain abundant source material for research and performance. Other notable collections include the Theatermuseum, the large municipal collection of instruments in the Stadtmuseum and the instrument collections in the Deutsches Museum and the Nationalmuseum. Major exhibitions have been mounted (some with comprehensive catalogues) on Orlande de Lassus (1982 and 1994), Richard Strauss (1964 and 1999), Max Reger (1968), Hans Pfitzner (1969), Carl Orff (1970 and 1978) and Werner Egk (1971).
MGG2 (C. Gottwald)
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LipowskyB
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R. Schaal: ‘Die vor 1800 gedruckten Libretti des Theatermuseums München’, Mf, xi (1958), 58–69
C. Gottwald: Die Musikhandschriften der Universitätsbibliothek München (Wiesbaden, 1968)
Kataloge bayerischer Musiksammlungen, iv, v, vii–ix (Munich, 1971–93) [incl. thematic catalogues of manuscripts in the Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek (up to c1700), St Kajetan, St Michael, Frauenkirche and Königliche Hofkapelle]