Country in the Middle East. It has a population of 3.29 million (2000 estimate) and an area of 10,452 km2 and is bordered by Syria to the north and east, the Mediterranean Sea to the west and Israel to the south. Several major cities, including the capital, Beirut, are located on Lebanon's coastal strip west of the Mt Lebanon range. Further to the east is the fertile Biqa valley, and on the border with Syria is another mountain range, known as the Anti-Lebanon. Its population lives in rural villages and in cities, to which many village dwellers have migrated in recent decades. Its economy, which was adversely affected by the Lebanese civil war (1975–1990), is based on agriculture, commerce and tourism; Lebanon enjoys a mild Mediterranean climate. The official language is Arabic, and the country's population includes Christians, Muslims and Druzes, as well as members of other faiths. Lebanon has been noted for its openness to the West over many centuries and its highly cosmopolitan social life.
The cultural history of Lebanon is linked to that of the broader Middle East and reflects the influence of the social and political forces that have dominated the region. At the same time, given its internal cultural variety and its insular geographic terrain, Lebanon maintains a distinct legacy of folk and liturgical practices. Since Lebanon gained independence from the French in 1943, its pedagogical institutions, composers and performers have contributed substantially to its musical life.
ALI JIHAD RACY
An account of the development of music in ancient Lebanon is difficult to construct particularly because primary sources are scarce. However, inferences can be made on the basis of extant artifacts, visual depictions, literary texts and evidence of contacts across the Middle East. For example, the seafaring Phoenicians, a Canaanite, Semitic people who formed coastal city-states on the shores of Lebanon as far back as the 3rd millennium bce, appear to have employed music and dance extensively in religious rituals, funeral rites and festive processions honouring specific deities (see Jewish music, §II, 3). Ancient references and terracotta female figurines from the period post-1000 bce indicate that the instruments used included the kennārā (lyre), the flute, the frame drum and the cymbals.
Furthermore, significant exchange of artists and musical artifacts existed among neighbouring civilizations, including those of ancient Egypt (see Egypt, §I), ancient Greece (see Greece, §I) and the biblical area of Palestine (see Jewish music, §II). Contacts also appear to have existed with Mesopotamia, notably during the periods of Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian rule. Ancient Mesopotamia is believed to have developed a thriving musical culture, which influenced the musics of both ancient Egypt and Greece.
Following the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 bce, the culture of the eastern Mediterranean region assimilated various Greek influences. Later, under Roman rule, the cults of various Roman gods and goddesses and the musical practices associated with each of these cults became prevalent. At the same time, the development of Greco-Roman culture was influenced by certain eastern Mediterranean rituals, notably those connected with Adonis, deity of Byblos, a coastal town known as Jbail in modern Lebanon. Objects excavated in Lebanon from this era depict festive music-making, using instruments such as the aulos (double pipe), the lyre, the harp, the panpipes and the tambourine.
The ascent and gradual decline of the Byzantine empire was followed by the Arab conquest, which led to the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty (660–750 ce). During this period, Lebanese culture assimilated new music-related practices and institutions, particularly under the influence of Islam. During the succeeding Abbasid era (750–1258), Arab music and poetry flourished in the courts of Baghdad; non-Arab, especially Persian, influences were also important (see Iran, §II). The economic life of Lebanon prospered under the Abbasids, and this period saw the crystallization of many of the country's religious, especially Christian, liturgical practices still in use at the beginning of the 21st century.
During the European Crusades (1096–1291), the Maronite Christian community in Lebanon came into direct contact with the French. Following the period of rule of the Mamluks and the subsequent fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, who ruled the eastern Mediterranean as part of their larger empire (1516–1914), the region's music came under direct Ottoman influence. Ottoman musical culture is usually associated with mehter (Janissary military bands), the influence of Sufi orders on musical practice, the organization of various manual (including musical) crafts under professional guilds and the development of an influential Ottoman court music (see Ottoman music).
The late Ottoman period in particular witnessed a rise of Western political, religious and musical influence in Lebanon. In 1866 American missionaries established the Protestant Syrian College, later called the American University of Beirut. In 1873 Edwin Lewis, an American missionary and professor at the college, wrote a short theoretical treatise in English explaining Arab music theory to Westerners interested in the music of the Middle East, and the first Protestant hymnal in Arabic was introduced, incorporating an introduction in Arabic outlining the theory of Western music and enabling Arabic speakers to interpret the notation of Western hymn tunes. The Lebanese Christian Mikhā'īl mushāqa proposed a division of the octave into 24 equal quarter tones, which was frequently contested. During the late Ottoman period, Western band instruments also became widely known in Lebanon; for example, contemporary accounts indicate that during 1908 an Ottoman band performed every Friday at the garden pavilion of Burj (later Martyrs) Square in Beirut. The early 20th century also witnessed the appearance of commercial sound recording and the rise of several locally active record companies, such as Baida Records (later Baidaphon), which was established by members of a Beiruti family around 1910.
The Christian Lebanese are usually considered under four distinct denominational categories.
(a) A group of ‘uniate’ Christians comprises approximately 37% of Lebanon's population. These Christians are united in terms of their acceptance of the Catholic faith but also maintain their own rites, which may be in different languages. This group includes the Maronites (approximately 30% of the country's population), who identify with the Syrian St Maron (Mārūn, d c410); the Greek Catholics, also known as Melkites or locally as ‘Catholics’, who identify with Rome but retain certain liturgical ties with the Antiochian Orthodox Church (approximately 6% of the country's population); and other smaller groups, including the Syrian Catholics, the Armenian Catholics and the Chaldeans. (See also Syrian church music.)
(b) Eastern Christians are theologically and ritually separate from the Roman papacy and include Orthodox Christians (also called Greek Orthodox), specifically those affiliated with the Antiochian patriarchate (approximately 10% of Lebanon's population); members of the Armenian Church (also known as the Gregorian Church); Nestorians, or followers of the Eastern or Assyrian Church; and Syrian Jacobites. The last two sects constitute very small minorities and use the Syriac language in their rites.
(c) Roman Catholics, locally known as ‘Latins’, follow the edicts of the Vatican and use a Roman-based liturgy. They comprise less than 1% of the country's population.
(d) Protestants also comprise less than 1% of the country's population.
The Christian liturgies display significant variety. For example, some of the Eastern-based denominations, in particular the Syrian Orthodox (Jacobite) and Assyrian churches, attribute a separate group of madrāshā (strophic hymns) to St Ephraem (c306–73), a renowned hymnodist, poet and commentator on religious texts. The Maronite liturgy, which uses the ancient Syriac language and also used Arabic after the Islamic conquest of Syria in 638, has essentially been transmitted orally, although transcriptions were undertaken by the French musicologist and Benedictine Dom Jean Parisot in the 19th century and by others. By the end of the 20th century, there were five somewhat distinct categories of Maronite chant: Syro-Maronite chant, which is many centuries old; Syro-Maronite-Arabic chant, with Syriac-based melodies and Arabic texts; melodic improvisations by a soloist using texts in Syriac or Arabic; original melodies based upon Western, Arab or Syriac models or a combination of these, with texts in classical Arabic; and melodies deriving from other liturgical or ethnic sources, notably Western melodies. In general, the singing is monophonic, and strophic structure and conjunct motion are typical. Although the formal performances are purely vocal, on certain festive occasions a hand-held bell or double bell, cymbals and a marwaha (a circular plaque to which rattling rings are attached) may be used.
The liturgical tradition of the Orthodox Church similarly derives from earlier religious practices. The origins of the neo-Byzantine chant in use by the end of the 20th century may be traced to the 13th century; the chant took its later form under the influence of Middle Eastern music, particularly the Ottoman modal tradition. In 1832 its theory and practice were codified by the Greek archbishop and music scholar Chrysanthos of Madytos in the light of contemporary musical practice. Similarly, in Lebanon the deacon, composer and scholar Mitrī al-Murr (1880–1969) provided a systematic compilation of older chants that were translated from Greek to Arabic (which became the official language of the local liturgy), accompanied by his own corrections and compositions. The liturgy incorporates chants, recitations and regular speech and tends to allow a degree of musical improvisation and melismatic elaboration by the soloist, often to the accompaniment of a vocal drone or ison (a Greek term referring both to the tonic of the melody and to the sustained note as such). The Orthodox Church maintains a neumatic system of notation, which was modified at various times during the past several centuries; it was rendered more accessible by the work of Chrysanthos in the early 19th century and elucidated further in Lebanon by the archimandrite and modern Byzantine theorist Antūn Hibbī. As Hibbī explained, the liturgical system follows the Chrysanthian practice of dividing the octave into 68 commas or small pitch units that form the various non-tempered intervals. Furthermore, the melodic material is based on a system of eight modes or ‘tunes’ (oktōēchos), at least some of which are directly equated with individual Arab-Turkish maqāmāt (melodic modes).
The Muslim community in Lebanon is represented by the two main branches of Islam, namely the Sunnites or Sunnis (followers of orthodox Islam) and the Shi‘as, who pay special homage to ‘Alī, the Prophet's cousin, son-in-law and fourth successor (see Islamic religious music). In both sects, the fundamental duties of Islam are followed and the Qur'an is revered as God's word revealed through his messenger, the Prophet Muhammad. Islamic devotion places great emphasis upon Qur'anic chanting, a practice that lies beyond traditional definitions of music and is generically known as tajwīd or tilāwa (‘recitation’). Performed on a variety of solemn occasions, chanting is improvised by a soloist without any accompaniment or metric pattern and is performed in accordance with the established system of melodic modes. The recitations typically consist of phrases followed by brief pauses and may vary in the manner of delivery; the murattal style is like a recitative, while the mujawwad style is highly florid and melismatic.
The adhān (‘call to prayer’) is similarly of great importance. It is traditionally performed from the minarets five times each day by one caller, who uses a specific text and improvises the melody to a certain extent, following a somewhat stylized melodic outline based upon the Arab modal tradition. A prominent figure among the Beiruti Sunnis is Shaykh Salāh al-Dīn Kabbāra, who trained at the Islamic al-Azhar University in Cairo and became an adept chanter of both the Qur'an and the adhān.
Semi-liturgical, for example Sufi, or mystical chants can also be heard, especially on religious holidays and during the fasting month of Ramadan. Such chants may be broadcast from minaret loudspeakers or on the radio and generally include the religious qasīda (poem), which is soloistic and improvised and uses a spiritual poem as text. The tawshīh is also performed; this has a mystical text and is predominantly precomposed. It consists basically of alternations between a munshid (lead religious singer), who performs melismatic and rhythmically flexible solo verses, and a bitānah (religious chorus), the members of which generally sing in a more syllabic and rhythmically regular style.
Among the Shi‘as, most of whom have traditionally lived in southern Lebanon and the Biqa valley, a ceremony is held annually to commemorate the martyrdom of the Prophet's grandson Husayn in the city of Karbala in 680 ce. This ceremony is known as ‘āshūrā’ or ta‘ziya (‘consolation’) and incorporates a type of passion play depicting the martyrdom and a form of chant narrating the tragic event and expressing the community's profound sense of sorrow.
The Druzes comprise about 6% of the population of Lebanon and live mainly in mountain villages. The Druze religious sect originated as an offshoot of Ismā‘īlī Islam in the 11th century but is generally considered religiously distinct. Within this community, which is known for its conservatism, tightly-knit social structure and emphasis on chivalry and honour, religious doctrines are accessible only to the ‘uqqāl (religious initiates). Devotional practices tend to be private, often taking place at the khalwāt (the initiates' secluded places of worship). Prayers also occur at funerals, being performed at the place of burial by a shaykh (religious person), who begins to chant alone and is subsequently joined by other shaykhs.
Traditional secular music in Lebanon may be studied in terms of three closely related traditions.
Lebanese villagers may sing to express love or voice social criticism while reaping their crops or threshing wheat. A mother may sing a tahnīn (lullaby) to her child, and a shepherd may entertain himself by playing the minjayra or the mijwiz. The minjayra is a flute made from either reed or metal, which is held diagonally; the player may place it against his lips or may put the end in his mouth against his upper front teeth. The mijwiz consists of two parallel reed-pipes played using circular breathing.
Laments are performed at funerals, especially in Christian and Druze communities. The word nadb refers generically to the various types of lament performed at the funeral but is also used to designate a particular genre performed exclusively at funerals by either men or women. Men, whose singing tends to be more florid, usually perform in the courtyard of the deceased's house and during the funeral procession to the burial site, whereas women primarily sing indoors, typically around the deceased's body. Nadb proper is strophic and consists of alternations between the naddāb (lead lament-singer; female naddāba), who is usually a village poet, and others who respond with a chorus refrain, usually the first line of the text. This genre has a distinctive melodic structure with a slightly descending contour (ex.1). The text expresses the sorrow of the community and extols the virtues of the deceased. A qasīdat rithā’ (poem of eulogy) may be sung with considerable melismatic elaboration by a male performer, typically a zajal poet; and songs performed by men or women may be borrowed from other occasions, especially the wedding, and adapted to the funerary context.
The firāqiyya (from firāq: ‘departure’) is the speciality of female lament-singers. A woman, either a professional naddāba or one of the deceased's relatives, may sing alone; or several women may take turns in singing separate firāqiyyāt verses. The descending contour of the melodic phrase is shown in ex.2; the last phrase ends on a sustained note, which may terminate in a falsetto effect like a sigh.
Finally, the funeral ceremony may feature a village brass band in which Western band instruments are used; such bands perform particularly during the funeral procession, and their repertory includes adaptations of local traditional tunes, older Arab and Turkish marches and ‘Arabized’ renditions of European funerary compositions.
Numerous songs and dances are performed at village weddings. Highly animated heroic chants collectively known as hidā' are performed by a male soloist in alternation with a chorus refrain (ex.3a and b), mostly during wedding processions. Occasionally stylized sword duels or sayf wa tirs (‘sword and shield’) may take place, usually accompanied by a brass band instrument or instruments. Women perform a solo wedding chant called zalāghīt or zaghārīd in praise of the bride or groom; each phrase begins with the cheering expression āwīhā and the last phrase ends with ululation (an extended, high-pitched trill).
During the wedding party, food and beverages, usually including ‘araq (a distilled aniseed-flavoured liquor), are served, and song genres typically performed include the abū al-zuluf and the ‘atābā. The abū al-zuluf is a strophic love song performed by an individual man or woman, usually with a short chorus refrain after each verse (ex.4); the melody displays a degree of improvisatory flexibility. The ‘atābā consists of verses sung by a man or woman alone, usually with an added refrain (mījānā) and typically opening with the expression yā mījānā (ex.5). Sometimes these songs are accompanied by a mijwiz or an urban instrument such as the ‘ūd.
Women in the group may take turns to perform the raqsa, a somewhat reserved solo dance, to the accompaniment of singing, rhythmic clapping and the sound of a dirbakka, a conical clay hand-drum with a characteristically deep and resonant sound. The same type of dancing may also be performed by men. Another essential component of the wedding festivity is the dabka (‘stomping’), a collective line-dance performed by either men or women. Holding hands with their shoulders touching, the dancers follow the same basic steps as their semicircular formation gradually moves anticlockwise. The dancers are accompanied by a minjayra or mijwiz player who stands in the middle facing the line (fig.1). The overall structure of the dance music is cyclic. Within each of many sequentially repeated short segments, one of the dancers sings a verse of a typical dabka song genre such as the dal‘ūnā, which is strophic and has a melody that exists in several well-known variants (ex.6). Following the verse, the other dancers sing a refrain, and the instrument continues to accompany in unison. This leads to a climactic phrase, sometimes called zakhkha or rabta, during which the dancers do not sing; their dancing becomes highly animated and the dance leader at the head of the line performs more elaborate steps and leaps. The instrumental accompaniment changes accordingly and consists mostly of repeated, strongly accentuated phrases.
Itinerant Gypsies may take part in the musical lives of the villages and to some extent those of the towns. At weddings or during holidays, Gypsy musicians may play the tabl and zamr, an outdoor instrumental combination consisting of a large double-sided drum and a double-reed wind instrument. Gypsy entertainers also perform on the buzuq, a long-necked fretted lute comparable to the Turkish saz; this is sometimes used to accompany a female Gypsy dancer who may play small finger cymbals while dancing.
Musical practices that are directly related to those of the Middle Eastern tribal nomads of the desert tend to have a lesser profile. They are found most typically in rural villages of the northern Biqa valley, usually around the town of Baalbek, a geographical area that appears to have been particularly exposed to Bedouin influence. Examples include the use of the Bedouin rabāba, a single-string bowed instrument with a body consisting of a quadrilateral frame covered with skin on both sides. The rabāba player is usually a shā‘ir (poet or poet-singer) who traditionally uses the instrument to accompany his own sung poetry, for example to entertain in intimate social gatherings. The instrument generally provides a heterophonic accompaniment to the highly embellished vocal line. Song genres performed include the shurūqī and the ‘atābā. The shurūqī or qasīd (‘poetry’) has a flexible strophic structure with individual phrases displaying a ‘zigzag’ contour; the text generally tells of chivalry or heroism. The theme of the ‘atābā is love; within its couplets, homonyms occur at the end of each of the first and second halves (hemistiches) of the first line and at the end of the first half of the second line. Like the shurūqī, the ‘atābā is strophic and allows a considerable degree of rhythmic and melodic flexibility; but in the ‘atābā each of the four hemistiches tends to ascend quickly then descend gradually, with the fourth ending on the final note.
Bedouin rituals are emulated to some extent. In social gatherings, particularly at the homes of eminent villagers, serving coffee is observed as a custom and cherished as an emblem of generosity and social esteem. Occasionally, a Bedouin mihbāj (a large wood coffee-grinder consisting of a mortar and a pestle) is used; in proper ceremonial contexts this serves as a household utensil, a symbol of status and a medium of entertainment (fig.2). In the hands of a skilled player it can produce intricate rhythmic patterns.
See also Bedouin music.
Zajal, the composing and singing of poems in Lebanese colloquial Arabic, is a self-contained and deeply-rooted tradition. A zajal poet is typically male and may be known as qawwāl (‘one who speaks’) or simply as shā‘ir (poet). He often represents his village or religious community, performing at funerals or entertaining at festive events. He may also take part in poetry contests with other poets or teams of poets; such contests have frequently been held in theatres and broadcast on television. During the 20th century numerous zajal poets achieved fame, notably Joseph al-Hāshim (b 1925), better known by his professional title Zaghlūl al-Dāmūr.
Zajal poets are expected to improvise their own poetry and to sing it well. They sing verses followed by refrains performed by a small chorus of men; both poet and chorus may accompany themselves on the duff (small tambourine). The poets also use a particular set of poetical-musical genres; each genre has a distinctive melodic design and poetic metre, and some also have a rhyme scheme. Genres that have longer and more complex metric and melodic structures, in particular the ma‘anná, tend to appear at the beginning of the performance, followed by those that have shorter and livelier patterns. Poetry contests may take the form of an animated philosophical debate or a humorous exchange of insults; such performances typically end with a compromise followed by ghazal (love poetry).
The modern urban musical culture of Lebanon embraces many indigenous traits but also manifests extensive Western influence. The traditional features, which are mostly shared with neighbouring Arab countries, include melodic complexity and extensive use of embellishment; a certain emphasis on vocal music; a preference for monophonic or heterophonic textures; the use of improvisation as well as pre-composition; microtonal as well as diatonic melodic intervals; melodies based on an established system of melodic modes (maqāmāt); and rhythms following a system of metric modes (īqā‘āt). Such features are also apparent in the use of urban instruments such as the ‘ūd (short-necked unfretted lute), the qānūn (trapezoid plucked zither with triple courses of mostly nylon strings), the nay (rim-blown reed flute), the Western violin, which is locally known as kamanja or kamān and is tuned differently from its Western counterpart (normally g, d', g', d''), the riqq (small tambourine) and the tabla (vase-shaped hand-drum). Other instruments and instrumental combinations (several violins, cellos, a double bass and in some instances electronic instruments) may be incorporated in the modern Arab firqa (larger instrumental ensemble).
1. Western-based classical repertory and music education.
Lebanon, §IV: Modern developments
Lebanon's extensive exposure to European, especially French, culture has led to the development of Western-style musical ensembles and pedagogical institutions. Wadī‘ Sabrā (1876–1952) came from a Protestant Lebanese family and studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Albert Lavignac (1846–1916); he became a highly skilled pianist and a prolific composer of chamber, symphonic and operatic works. In 1910 he opened a school of music in Lebanon, the Dār al-Mūsīqā, of which he was director for the rest of his life; it became known as the National School of Music in 1925 and the National Conservatory in 1929. Anīs Fuleihān (1900–70) was a Lebanese teacher and composer born in Cyprus who formed and conducted symphonic ensembles in Lebanon and Tunisia; he also worked in the United States and became known for his numerous piano works, symphonies and symphonic suites. Tawfīq Sukkar was the director of the National Conservatory between 1964 and 1969 and taught Western solfège and theory there; he also directed the Echo des Cèdres choir and incorporated Arab microtones in his polyphonic works. The Armenian Lebanese Boghos Gelalian (b 1927) taught Western music theory at the National Conservatory and influenced many Lebanese students and composers.
Numerous Lebanese teachers have contributed to the propagation of Arab musical knowledge. Salīm al-Hilū (1893–c1979) studied in Naples and in Cairo, where he became acquainted with the music scholar and journalist of Lebanese origin Iskandar Shalfūn (1872–1936); al-Hilū subsequently established a music school in Haifa. In 1943 he began to teach Arab music theory and the ‘ūd at the Lebanese National Conservatory and thereafter prepared a standard text on the theory of Arab music and a notated anthology of muwashshah compositions. George Farah (b 1913) wrote a method for the ‘ūd and was appointed director of the Eastern music department of the National Conservatory in 1945.
From 1991 Lebanon's National Conservatory was directed by Walīd Gholmieh (Ghulmiyya) who was known both for his urban folkloric works and for his symphonies and symphonic poems such as al-Qādisiyya (1977) and al-Mutanabbī (1979). After the end of the Lebanese civil war, enrolment in the Conservatory increased considerably, and branches were established in cities throughout the country. At the end of the 20th century, programmes of study available included a course lasting for a minimum of six years leading to the award of a baccalaureate in music and a four-year course leading to the award of a licence in music. The Conservatory also offers other more advanced degrees and publishes a series of books on subjects related to music. In 1999 it established a national chamber ensemble and a national symphony orchestra.
Musical instruction is also provided by the Université Saint-Esprit de Kaslik, which was founded by the Maronite Order in 1949 and is located in the Kaslik suburb of Jounié, north of Beirut. In 1970 the university's Institute of Musicology was established through the efforts of Father Louis Hage (al-Hāj, b 1938), who directed the institute until 1986. Hage held a licence in theology from the San Anselmo Academy in Rome and a doctorate in musicology from the Sorbonne. In 1992 the institute was transformed into the faculty of music of the Université Saint-Esprit, of which Hage became dean in 1999. A School of Music and a Centre for Sacred Music are attached to the faculty. The School of Music provides theoretical and practical instruction in French, Arabic and English and offers a series of certificates. The most advanced of these is equivalent to a high school diploma and entitles the student to apply for graduate study in the music faculty, which offers a series of degrees culminating in a doctorate.
Since the early 20th century, numerous other institutions and teachers have contributed to the development of the musical life of Lebanon. Father Būlus Ashqar (1881–1962) studied at the Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome and in France and taught Western music theory and religious music at a church in the town of Antilyas; his students included the Rahbānī brothers. Instruction was also offered by the music school of the Lebanese Academy of Fine Arts founded by Alexis Butrus in 1943. Bertrand Robillard (d 1964) was a particularly influential instructor at the academy who also taught the Rahbānīs; he encouraged his local students to study counterpoint rather than chordal harmony. The Fine Arts Academy, which was founded by Samī Salībī in Ras Beirut in 1956 and remained open until 1988, offered courses in art and instruction primarily on Western musical instruments.
The American University of Beirut has sponsored local artists and visiting (mainly Western) ensembles since its foundation in the late 19th century. Salvador Arnita (‘Arnīta), a Palestinian-born organist and composer who trained in Italy, directed the university choir and taught courses in Western theory and harmony. His works included three symphonies, four concertos for piano, organ and flute and an Arabian suite. In 1944 the university introduced non-credit courses in music and in 1965 music became part of the department of fine arts. In 1966 the BA in Western music and music history was introduced. Among the teachers was the Lebanese concert pianist Diana Takieddine. Students of the short-lived programme included the Lebanese music teacher and composer Kifāh Fākhūrī and Ali Jihad Racy, who performed regularly in concerts at and on television at that time and broadcast a weekly radio programme on world music.
By the mid-20th century, the Fulayfil brothers, whose careers are associated with the music of police bands in Lebanon, had composed numerous anthems, which were widely admired; some are still taught in Lebanese schools. The Jeunesses Musicales of Lebanon, which was established in 1956, sponsored local performers such as the buzuq player Matar Muhammad and introduced Lebanese artists to audiences abroad. Important researchers included the journalist Ilyās Sahhāb, who wrote on Arab music, and his brother Victor Sahhāb, the author of numerous histories of leading figures in the Arab music of Egypt and Lebanon.
Lebanon, §IV: Modern developments
Radio has played an important role in disseminating local traditional and popular musics in modern Lebanon. The al-Sharq al-Adnā (Near East) station established by the British around 1940 transmitted its programmes from Cyprus but opened a recording studio in Lebanon in the early 1950s, giving many local composers and singers an outlet before the station's closure in 1956. The Lebanese official radio station was established under the French as Radio al-Sharq (Radio of the East) around 1937 and was taken over by the Lebanese government in 1946. Before its decline during and after the civil war, the Lebanese radio station had employed a cadre of administrators, technical staff, lyricists, composers, musicians and ensemble conductors; those employed included the composer Halīm al-Rūmī (d 1983), who was at one time the director of the station's music division, and the composer and conductor Tawfīq al-Bāshā (b 1924), who composed for and directed major folkloric musical productions and whose works combined Arab modal melodies with distinctive polyphonic textures. In addition to its regular Arabic broadcasts, the Lebanese radio station offered programmes in French and English and kept an archive of sound recordings. By the end of the 20th century, Lebanon had about six public and private TV stations and several radio stations, most of which were privately owned.
Lebanon, §IV: Modern developments
In addition to the Western-based classical repertory created by Lebanese composers, Lebanese urban music incorporates five strands that tend to overlap both historically and stylistically.
The term baladī (from balad: ‘country’) refers to various folksong categories that are urbanized in terms of style and context of presentation. Baladī songs follow the urban mainstream model, using the standard Arab intonation and a few basic maqāmāt; the singer is accompanied by an urban ensemble including traditional Arab instruments. The songs are preceded by short orchestral preludes usually of the standard dūlāb type. The genres most typically performed are the shurūqī (sung in maqām huzām) and the ‘atābā (sung in maqām bayyātī).
A city-based genre called mawwāl Baghdādī, which allows for considerable improvisatory elaboration, is sometimes considered part of the baladī style; its name and some of its textual idiosyncrasies suggest a historical connection with Iraq. Important baladī artists of the early 20th century included the singers Farajallah Baidā, Muhiyy al-Dīn Ba‘yūn (1868–1934), who played the buzuq (also called tunbūr) and sang mawwāl Baghdādī, and Yūsuf Tāj, who was known for his use of a distinctive extended ornament resembling vibrato. More recent performers include Ilyās Rubayz, Īliyyā Baidā (1909–78), Wadī‘ al-Sāfī and Sabāh. Baladī songs were issued on 78 r.p.m. discs and later on LPs and cassettes both within Lebanon and among Lebanese emigrant groups, particularly in the United States; they were also broadcast regularly on Lebanese radio, especially before the Lebanese civil war.
This is sometimes termed turāth (‘heritage’) or qadīm (‘old’). It is used both as learning material for students wishing to master the Arab musical tradition and as an art music performed by skilled musicians in intimate gatherings as well as in theatres. The repertory includes old Arab genres, notably the muwashshah, a precomposed vocal genre that uses a variety of often complex īqā‘āt and is generally linked to the literary and musical legacies of Moorish Spain. The use of taqāsīm (instrumental modal improvisations on traditional solo instruments) and comparable vocal improvisations is prominent. This category of urban music also includes Ottoman-based precomposed instrumental genres such as the bashraf, the samā‘ī and the longa. During the 1980s turāth pieces including muwashshahāt were performed in Western-style concerts by a Lebanese choir directed by the Lebanese conductor Salīm Sahhāb (b 1941), who trained in Russia. More recently, the indigenous repertory of art music has been performed by the violin virtuoso Nidaa Abou Mrad (Nidā‘ Abū Murād, b 1959), who trained as a music therapist in France; he has performed in public and made numerous CD recordings of older compositions, including Egyptian ‘classics’ of the late 19th century.
Music in the Arab mainstream style with Lebanese elements is known as tarab (‘ecstasy’ or ‘enchantment’) or fann (‘art’) and has been highly influential, especially between the early 1950s and the mid-1970s. The songs are mainly sung in Lebanese colloquial Arabic and are often based on the theme of love; they may sometimes voice social critique and humour. The music shares its instrumentation and performance style with other Arab, especially Egyptian, mainstream counterparts. The mainstream style was influenced by the influx of Palestinian musicians, especially after 1948, and centres around the ughniyya, a generic term for ‘song’.
A Lebanese ughniyya typically features a mutrib (lead solo vocalist) with a firqa and often a chorus. It usually begins with a short orchestral prelude, displays an overall strophic design and incorporates a short interlude in free rhythm generally termed the mawwāl section, which is improvisatory in nature and most often consists of one ‘atābā verse. The mainstream style has also embraced an instrumental dance component, which has been associated with several well-known instrumentalists and instrumental ensembles.
Numerous mainstream singers achieved fame in Lebanon and some became known throughout the Arab world. These included Mary Jibrān (b 1911), a Lebanese-born singer who worked mostly in Syria and Egypt, and, in later years, the female singers Nūr al-Hudā (whose repertory included Egyptian songs), Najāh Salām and Zakiyya Hamdān. More recent celebrities include Sabāh (Jeannette Faghghālī, b 1927) and Wadī‘ al-Sāfī. Sabāh is the daughter of the zajal poet Shahrūr al-Wādī; she mastered the Lebanese ‘atābā and abū al-zuluf genres, acted in Egyptian films, worked closely with several Egyptian composers and sang a large number of popular mainstream songs especially during the 1950s and 60s (fig.3). Wadī‘ al-Sāfī (Wadī‘ Fransīs, b 1921) ascended to stardom in 1939 and became known as a performer of Lebanese urban songs deriving from or emulating the local mountain village style. He became widely admired for his exceptional voice, his skill in improvisation and his ability to evoke tarab in his listeners (fig.4).
This was especially prominent during the 1960s and 70s. Its generic appellation, fūlklūr, was coined in reference to its association with Lebanon's local lore, especially that of the mountain villages. However, its domain is essentially urban; it expresses the nostalgic feelings of the urban dwellers about rural traditions and implies an interest in creating an art form which represents Lebanon as both modern and culturally distinct. This new style is directly associated with the pioneering work of the Rahbānī Brothers ‘Āsī (1923–86) and Mansūr (b 1925) (see Rahbānī), who were among the most influential and prolific composers and lyricists not only in Lebanon but in the entire Arab world. The Rahbānīs were joined from time to time by their younger brother Elias (Ilyās, b 1938) and worked as a team that included the Lebanese singer Fayrūz.
The early songs of Fayrūz and the Rahbānīs included numerous adaptations of older folk and popular tunes, many of which became unrivalled hits by the late 1950s. After 1956 the International Baalbek Festivals were held annually until the outbreak of the civil war, resuming when the war ended; these were established under the supervision of a government-sponsored committee and became one of the primary venues for performances of the Rahbānīs' folkloric musical plays. Featuring Fayrūz as well as other singers such as Nasrī Shams al-Dīn, Sabāh and Wadī‘ al-Sāfī, the typical Rahbānī play incorporated dialogues basically in the colloquial Arabic of the villages of central Lebanon, songs and dances. The plots, characters and costumes generally centred around village life but sometimes depicted historical events.
The Rahbānīs' songs incorporated elements from local folk traditions, the Arab musical mainstream and Western art music. They were essentially precomposed throughout, with little or no opportunity for improvisation, and the music was characterized by attention to compositional detail, a special interest in tone colour and a luminescent quality that was unique to the Rahbānīs' orchestral textures. Three instruments were central to the Rahbānī musical idiom, namely the buzuq, the duct flute or recorder, and the accordion. The metal strings of the buzuq produce a bright sound and are well suited for drone effects. The duct flute was played almost exclusively by an exceptionally talented musician, Joseph Ayyūb; it has a pure high-pitched sound quite different from the breathy sound produced by the nay. The accordion, which was constructed to produce the microtones of Arab music, similarly added to the ensemble a certain timbral crispness. These instruments were supported by a riqq, a tabla and, often, a double bass; the Rahbānīs usually added legato strings and a piano, which was used to fill out the orchestral texture with light arpeggiated motifs. The distinctive quality of Fayrūz's voice contributed further to the unique Rahbānī sound.
Almost all of the dances used in the Rahbānīs' plays were newly choreographed for performance with specific songs. The ‘folkloric’ dances were inspired by the village dabka, and the dancers' costumes were based on traditional folk dress (fig.5). Created by professional dance-trainers, some of whom were Lebanese Armenians, the new versions of the dances were reminiscent of Russian and Balkan folkdances in certain respects. The rise of the new dance form is usually traced back to the 1956 visit of the Russian choreographer Igor Moiseyev to Lebanon at the invitation of the wife of Lebanese President Sham‘ūn; Moiseyev prescribed specific ways of developing the new dance form.
In terms of their thematic and stylistic content, many of the Rahbānīs' works were not strictly ‘folkloristic’. Some of their songs addressed non-‘folkloric’, including pan-Arab, topics, and many of Fayrūz's songs featured popular Western dance rhythms, including those of Latin America, as well as Western instruments. Several late Rahbānī plays had urban themes, albeit with folk allusions and subplots.
Other artists who contributed to the development of the ‘folkloric’ movement included the composer Philemon (Filimūn) Wihbah (d 1985) and the composer and singer Zakī Nāsīf (b 1916).
After the civil war, the ‘folkloric’ legacy was superseded to some extent by other developments, some of which were closely related. After the separation of Fayrūz and ‘Āsī in the late 1970s and ‘Āsī's death in 1986, Mansūr continued to compose musical plays concerning a variety of historical, philosophical and moral issues (see Rahbānī, (2)). The pianist and composer Ziyād Rahbānī (see Rahbānī, (4)), the son of ‘Āsī Rahbānī and Fayrūz, used certain sonorities and patterns of instrumentation from the earlier Rahbānī music but also incorporated elements from Western music, especially jazz. Comparable innovations may be found in the works of the composer, singer and ‘ūd virtuoso Marcel Khalifé (Khalīfa, b 1950). Early in his career, Khalifé led the al-Mayādīn ensemble and composed and performed songs addressing various socialist and pan-Arab issues. He also created works directly influenced by the European symphonic model. During the 1990s he composed a piece for two ‘ūds accompanied by a riqq and a bass instrument.
Since the 1980s a new popular style has gradually developed, which is in some respects a derivative of both the earlier Arab mainstream and the ‘folkloric’ music. This more recent ‘pop’ is associated with a new generation of young male and female artists, many of whom rose to fame through the Lebanese television talent show Studio al-Fann.
The new style has a Lebanese character but borrows substantially from Western popular music; it has close counterparts in many Arab countries. Short love songs are the norm. A few common maqāmāt are widely used, although major and minor melodies are also quite prevalent. The style is characterized further by the extensive use of short and highly accentuated Arab dance rhythms played on the tabla and riqq and often reinforced by a Western drum kit, producing an accentual drive reminiscent of American rock music. The ensemble accompanying the lead vocalist also includes electronic instruments, the most important being the keyboard and the bass guitar. Many songs feature intricate harmonic textures and influences from other Mediterranean styles such as the Spanish flamenco. The new music has been transmitted throughout the Middle East through satellite communication and has developed a significant visual component; the Arab ‘television song’ or ‘video clip’ is often colourful and elaborately produced and is becoming popular throughout the Arab world.
Lebanon, §IV: Modern developments
At the beginning of the 21st century, a number of general tendencies may be discerned in the music of Lebanon. These include a further intensification of Western influence, which is already deeply entrenched; rapid musical change leading to the decline of many traditional genres and performance practices; an increase in national and international cultural links through the use of electronic and satellite technology and the further blurring of geographical and artistic boundaries; and a renewed interest in indigenous musical traditions and their potential role in the emerging global context.
Numerous Lebanese artists have been active abroad. The pianists Abdel Rahman El Bacha (‘Abd al-Rahmān al-Bāshā, b 1958) and Walīd Akel (‘Aql, 1945–97) and the trumpeter Nassim Maalouf (Nasīm Ma‘lūf, b 1941) have performed in France; the ‘ūd player and composer of fusion works Rabī‘ Abū Khalīl has appeared in Germany; and those who have worked in the USA include the pianist Diana Takieddine, the pianist and composer Walīd Howrānī and the composer and performer of Arab music Ali Jihad Racy (b 1943), who in 1978 became professor of ethnomusicology at the University of California at Los Angeles.
Many international artists have visited Lebanon, especially performers from the West; before the civil war visiting musicians included Karlheinz Stockhausen, Herbert von Karajan, Ella Fitzgerald, Joan Baez and Miles Davis, and during the last few years of the 20th century performances have been given in Lebanon by Luciano Pavarotti, James Brown, the Whirling Dervishes of Turkey and the Indian tablā player Zakir Hussain.
C. Poché: ‘Vers une musique libanaise de 1850 à 1950’, Les cahiers de l'Oronte, no.7 (1969), 77–100
J. Porte, ed.: Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ii (Paris, 1969)
S. Jargy: La poésie populaire traditionelle chantée au Proche-Orient arabe, i: Les textes (Paris, 1970)
L. Hage: Le chant de l'église maronite, 12 vols (Kaslik, 1972–2000)
K. Boullata and S. Boulus, eds.: Fayrouz: Legend and Legacy (Washington DC, 1981)
A.J. Racy: ‘Lebanese Laments: Grief, Music and Cultural Values’, World of Music, xxviii/1 (1986), 27–40
A. Haydar: ‘The Development of Lebanese Zajal: Genre, Meter and Verbal Duel’, Oral Tradition, iv (1989), 189–212
A.K. Rasmussen: Individuality and Social Change in the Music of Arab Americans (diss., UCLA, 1991)
A.J. Racy: ‘Music’, The Genius of Arab Civilization: Source of Renaissance, ed. J.R. Hayes (New York, 3/1992), 149–71
A.J. Racy: ‘Heroes, Lovers and Poet-Singers: the Bedouin Ethos in the Music of the Arab Near-East’, Journal of American Folklore, cix (1996), 404–24
A Musical Anthology of the Orient: Lebanon, coll. C. Poché, UNESCO Collection, Musicaphon BM 30 SL 2030 (1972)
Laments of Lebanon, coll. A.J. Racy, Folkways FE 4046 (1985)
For further discography see Boullata and Boulus, eds. (1981).