The study of visual representations, their significance and interpretation.
TILMAN SEEBASS
The terms ‘iconography’.and ‘iconology’, were created by 16th-century humanists for the study of emblems, portraits on coins and other pictorial evidence from ancient archaeology. They referred to the description (Gk: graphein) or interpretation (Gk: logos) of the content of pictures as regards both visual symbolism and factual research. When, in the 19th century, art history became established as an academic discipline, a comprehensive analytical method was developed in which content and form became the main subjects of analysis. From then on, scholars used the terms ‘iconography’ and ‘iconology’ when they referred to the study of content as opposed to the study of form or style. In musicology, however, both approaches continued to exist, side by side. The twofold meaning remains an obstacle to the unequivocal usage of the term. Some treat the visual arts as supplier of special information pertinent to musical facts, using musical iconography as an ancillary tool for research in the pictorial documentation of instruments and performance. Others consider an image with musical subject matter as a work of art in its own right, using musical iconography towards research in the vision and visualization of music.
Any pictorial document requires for its interpretation an understanding of visual aesthetics. This is especially true for pictures dealing with a topic as invisible and immaterial as the world of sound. The musical iconographer must therefore be familiar with art-historical iconology as well as fulfilling the obvious methodological requirement of expertise in organology and performing practice. Exemplary descriptions of this method come from members of the Warburg school (see for example Panofsky, B1939, and Białostocki, B1963): the student should first describe the formal elements of a picture and deal with the factual meaning of each element; secondly, he or she must take account of the cultural convention that influenced the depiction of those elements, tracing them back to a story or a scene, and discussing any intended ‘transnatural’, allegorical or metaphorical meaning (this is the stage of descriptive analysis that Panofsky called iconography); at the third level, the scholar may establish an iconology of the intrinsic meaning of the picture and discuss it as a manifestation of the artist's personality, the patron's ambitions and the onlooker's expectations. Iconology explains the picture as a paradigm of a given culture.
An analogy with the terms ‘ethnography’ and ‘ethnology’ may be illuminating. Iconography, of course, assumes knowledge of comparative material, leading to an informed description with qualitative weighting; iconology implies intellectual penetration on a hermeneutical level. Musicologists have come to adopt these methodological ideas for their purposes, and in the 1970s and 80s came to consider their particular relevance for musical iconography. Emanuel Winternitz advocated the term ‘musical iconology’, although he himself rarely penetrated to the analytical level that it implies. That term, because it is so loaded, is rarely used.
More recently, art history, like musicology has paid increasing attention to semantic pluralism in matters of interpretation. In musical iconography this pertains both to the subject matter (the way music has been appreciated in the course of time) and the medium (the way a painting has been seen in the course of time). Hence in musical iconography the hermeneutial equation operates with two unknowns because the codes for what can be represented in the visual medium and what can be performed in the aural one are not the same. For example: there was never a place where the hierarchy of pictorial genres was more codified than in France during the ancien régime. This must be taken into account in explaining the absence of representations of musicians in the iconography of ceremonies at that time. The cultural code assigned to minstrels was so low on the scale of pictorial subjects that they could not be allowed to appear in pictures although they played a crucial role in the ceremony itself (Charles-Dominique, E1996). But there are contrary examples: musical caricatures and satirical images can represent music that is not aurally acceptable or feasible.
Furthermore, analysis can be complicated by the juxtaposition of different cultures, when the creator of the picture, although a witness of the event, is not part of the music culture. Thus pictures even including photographs made by colonial explorers, travellers or ethnomusicologists originate with authors from a culture different from the one they are depicting. Here the second unknown in the equation appears whenever tensions arise between an ‘emic’ and an ‘etic’ viewpoint (in the literal sense).
Any document that visualizes music either concretely or abstractly is an artist's reflection on music and hence an object for iconography. The material ranges from photographs to figurative and abstract art; it can be an illustration of a text, or an image stemming from an orally transmitted story, or it may lack any textual base. One step further removed are decorations of musical instruments and the musical instrument as an image; stage decorations for musical theatre; the design of places and buildings where music is performed; the photo of a composer's studio and so on. A special case are pictures inspiring musicians to programmatic compositions. Finally, the study of synaesthetical concepts governing both music and the visual arts are also sometimes considered as belonging to the field of musical iconography.
Every culture provides us with sources of various types. The individual mix depends very much on the place the two arts have in a particular cultural system: their role in religion, their social importance and their relationship to a literate, semi-literate or non-literate tradition.
1. Manuscript and book illustration.
2. Pictures with no direct textual base.
5. Stage decorations, record jackets.
6. Contextual sources: performance sites.
The typical procedure for producing an illustrated text begins with decisions about the overall design and the placement of text, musical notation (where given) and picture (Seebass, B1987). When the scribe has written his part, he hands the manuscript to the music scribe, and finally the illustrator takes over. It would be wrong to assume that the illustrator always fully understands the text. Often he is guided by any surrounding music, but if the music mentioned in the text has no equivalent in the painter's everyday world, he may cling to the text at the expense of visual coherence or feasibility, or may take his picture, partly or entirely, from another visual source – a model book or a woodcut, either by tracing through from an earlier manuscript or free copying.
A fascinating example is the illustration of Virdung's Musica getutscht, the product of a collaboration between the author (Sebastian Virdung), the publisher (Michael Furter, who decided how much decoration he could afford, hired typesetters and woodcutters and was responsible for the lay-out) and the main illustrator (Urs Graf, artist and mercenary). Virdung furnished some pictures of instruments from other books (such as the Dance of Death cycle) and sketches. Graf made only two sketches, a lutenist and two hands pulling strings, both technically challenging. The main work rested with the woodcutter who transformed these and other models into drawings and transferred them to the woodblock. With the typesetter, he arranged them together with the borders, which Furter had in stock in his print shop. The illustrations are thus a fairly heterogeneous compilation, while the text is laid out straightforwardly.
For a classification of such sources the nature of the text provides a natural criterion, distinguishing illustrations for treatises in music theory from illustrations of narratives that mention music-making.
The woodcuts in Virdung's treatise remind the reader of what he has seen and heard on various musical occasions; they are not very lucid for anyone with more detailed knowledge. But illustrators can go much further as far as details are concerned if the purpose is not merely to serve as an aide mémoire but to explain construction (even indicating scales, as in Praetorius's organography) and acoustical aspects: they may complement the text and enable the reader to build the instrument or better understand sound production.
Of another kind are illustrations that embody symbolical or numerological meanings of musical scales and instruments. They integrate concepts of their sister arts, arithmetics, geometry and astronomy, and transform schemes into figurae, visual symbols with spiritual power and emblematic quality (Seebass, B1987; van Deusen, 1989). The most prominent examples are the illustrations of the Carolingian treatise ‘Cogor, ut te, Dardane’ (Hammerstein, F1959) copied for over 500 years, and the illustrations of Isidore of Seville's treatise on musical instruments (I-Tn R 454, olim D III 19 ff.33v–34v).
Byzantinists describing, identifying and classifying illustrated manuscripts differentiate significantly between continuous illustrations that are action-orientated (a practice in monastic redactions of Byzantine psalters) and illustrations that condense events, represent and interpret them in a christological and teleological fashion (aristocratic redaction in Constantinople). While the former are close to the text, with the miniatures typically placed in the margin, the latter interrupt the text across the columns or are placed on an extra page.
This differentiation also applies to manuscript illustration elsewhere, and is important to musical iconography in particular. Pictures of the synthesizing type may be complex constructions produced by multiple exegesis. Compiling various meanings into one image, artists apply two or more of the four doctrines of scriptural meaning, sensus literalis, sensus allegoricus, sensus tropologicus and sensus anagogicus. For example, in the literal sense, the figure of David is the musician in his various roles according to the story (shepherd, court musician, composer-performer of psalms, founder of the liturgy in the Temple). In the allegorical sense, he is the precursor of Christ and the founder of Christian liturgy, accompanied by his four liturgists (Asaph, Eman, Ethan and Idithun) as precursors of the four evangelists. In the tropological sense, he is the model musician, knowledgeable in music theory and modality (musicus) and the perfect singer (cantor). In the anagogical sense he is the leader for singing the celestial Alleluia. An example is the famous drawing at the beginning of the Cambridge Psalter (GB-Cjc B 18, f.1, early 12th century; Seebass, Musikdarstellung, E1973, pl.111) or the miniature illustrating Psalm cl in the Stuttgart Psalter (D-Slv bibl. f.23, f.163v, c830; Seebass, Musikdarstellung, E1973, pl.93).
The smallest version of the second type of illustration are figurative initials for the different sections of a text. One degree higher are larger images covering the content of chapters, and a further degree higher are illustrated title pages and frontispieces (the verso of the leaf preceding the title (‘looking at the title’). Here the content and meaning of the images extend to the most relevant aspects of the succeeding chapter or to the significance of the book as a whole. A famous example of a full-page miniature carrying meaning beyond the textual content of the following pages is the frontispiece of a manuscript of Notre Dame polyphony (I-Fl plut.XIX.27), organized according to music-theoretical principles with figurative initials in which little scenes illustrate the song texts. The miniature is unrelated to them: instead it displays the Boethian threefold system of cosmic, terrestrial, and acoustical harmony, suggesting that the manuscripts should be understood as a symbol of human effort to emulate and prove concepts of divine harmony.
The idea of a marginal narrative illustration can also be seen at work in narrative frescoes and tapestries, while the synthetical illustration has a parallel in autonomous panel painting. Finally, the semantic richness of an illustrated manuscript or book may also include the decorative element in the form of geometrical or ornamental designs and the drôlerie in the margin.
This category embraces figurative friezes, frescoes and tapestries. Once the textual ‘support’ is absent, the pictorial genre will change: the context is not textual in the literal sense and the reader is replaced by the onlooker. Tapestries, friezes on vase paintings and frescoes on the walls of temples and churches are not meant only for literati and require a different technique of conveying content. Some of these frescoes do in fact tell stories, either already known to the onlooker or to be explained by an expert guide. They presuppose a text (sometimes providing hints by inserted short inscriptions or bands with texts) and in this respect can be analysed almost like illustrations. Some of them are narrative in character, for example some of the music scenes on Greek vase paintings of the classical period telling us about myths and rituals; others are more programmatic, such as the tympana of Romanesque and Gothic churches with the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse praising the Lord with their instruments, or the Buddhist paradise where musicians and dancers perform before the Buddha (cave paintings of Dunhuang in west China or reliefs at the upper level of the temple of Borobudur, Central Java). The group of viewers for which a picture is created has a decisive influence on the mode of depiction. Equally important is the homiletic essence of the theme. At Borobudur, the reliefs at the lower level tell stories taking place in the sinful world and represent music scenes involving the local Javanese population; the reliefs at the higher level represent music in a paradise modelled after South Asian court fashion.
A rare case of a narrative fresco is the Beethovenfries painted by Gustav Klimt in the Secession building in Vienna. It illustrates and interprets a musical text – Beethoven's Ninth Symphony – requiring the spectator to recall the structual layout and content of the movements in succession while walking along the frieze. When the visitor turns to the last wall, Max Klinger's statue of Beethoven, in the centre of the adjacent room, comes into view, remaining in sight until he or she reaches the end of the frieze and the final chorus of the finale.
The most widely spread category of sources is the single picture, including paintings, sculptures and photographs. Occasionally it is extracted, with little change from a series of pictures and can be identified and analysed accordingly. But by far the most frequent case is the autonomous image. It must be analysed with the cultural context and pictorial tradition in mind, but on its own terms. If its content is related to music, it requires in addition an understanding of the musical culture at the time of its making, particularly of aesthetics, since these will shape the artist's horizon as much as the visible side of musical performance. With a subject matter as invisible as sound the process of its transformation into an image is complex. How this transformation is achieved depends on the theme and the medium. A devotional oil painting of St Cecilia would be on the abstract side, and so would a woodcut of an emblem. By contrast, a banquet scene with musical entertainment on a silk screen is to be understood in real terms (see also §§III–IV below).
For most cultures, musical instruments are not just tools that increase human ability to produce sound; they also possess an animistic component. Curt Sachs (J1929) was the first to point out that they were icons or musical spirits given concrete form. To emphasize this link they are often endowed with anthropomorphic elements, such as body outlines, facial features, sex organs. Where they belong to animal cults they may take on zoomorphic elements. Four examples may serve as illustration. First, there exist bowed instruments that show visual and terminological links to North Asian horse cults (Tsuge, J1976). Secondly, certain Latin American Indians wear zoomorphic clay whistles as charms and play them to evoke the spirit of the protecting animal (Olsen, J1986). Thirdly, a Beneventan double flute from the early 20th century, made from a single piece of wood but simulating two flutes bound together (fig.1), has an anthropomorphic appearance with the two air holes at the wedges suggesting the eyes, and the lowest part of the pipes (separated from each other) the feet. The flute is used as a wedding gift and the decorative carving in the central band shows a couple, man and woman, standing for the left and right pipes which are tuned a 3rd apart and called male and female; below, a larger hermaphrodite is shown between the two pipes. Thus the instrument both by its shape and by its decoration incorporates the idea of unification of male and female, also realized by the dyophonic playing (Guizzi, B1990). Lastly, a phallic slit drum, belonging to a village chief in Lombok (Indonesia), was positioned vertically and had the shape of a fish with its head bearing hermaphroditic elements; when it was played at a fertility ritual, the act symbolized the fruitful marriage between the chief and the village (Meyer, J1939).
In many cultures instrument makers do not stop at the level of functionality when they build instruments but invest additional labour and cost in decorating them with pictures, thus increasing their value. Sometimes the decoration has no figurative content and simply beautifies the object, such as the prospect of an organ, the burnt-in decorations of a Balinese suling or an East African mbira, or the intarsia of a music table. Sometimes the decoration has ritual or magic purposes and supports the ceremony performed with the instrument. Examples include Van Eyck's painted organ shutters (Ghent, St Bavo), Lucca della Robbia's balcony for the cantoria (Florence, Museo del'Opera de Duomo), with the reliefs illustrating music-making according to Psalm cl, or the cosmos painted on the shaman's drum showing the upper, central and nether worlds through which the shaman travels during his performance in search of spirits (Emsheimer, J1988). Sometimes the purpose is to heighten the prestige of the owner or to add visual pleasures to the aural ones during the performance, as is the case with painted harpsichord lids. The subject matter of such pictures reaches from concrete musical scenes to social or spiritual symbolism.
One step removed from direct reference are the decorations and costumes for dance drama and musical theatre. Sometimes it is impossible to distinguish them from the stage decoration for theatre plays. But there is a difference between the texts of regular plays and opera librettos: libretto texts do not exhaust the subject but rather provide a dramatic and lyric frame for the composer. With the content of opera thus depending on both text and music, the visual component will also derive its purpose, style and subject matter from the music.
The character of stage decorations cannot be defined for the entire history of musical theatre. Sometimes it is a work of art in its own right; sometimes it has an auxiliary function like applied art for providing no more than a backdrop or platform for the dramatic action. Sometimes it is closely wedded to music and text, as in Richard Wagner's Gesamtkunstwerk. Sometimes it may add a further dimension to the content of music and text, as in the stage decorations that Schoenberg designed for his works and in the collaborative productions in Paris among Satie, Cocteau and Picasso (Parade, 1917) or Stravinsky's ballets.
Conceptually, the art of jackets for recordings belong to the same category. Here the thematic possibilities are innumerable and reach from historied pictures of performances and musicians' portraits to visual emulations of the structural, emotional, social or political content of the music.
Places of ritual activity are not chosen by chance; ritual music is embedded in the visual and spiritual ambience of the site. Of course, in principle the spatial requirements of the ritual take precedence over musical ones. But, as long as the performance requirements are not in conflict with more important considerations, they will be observed so as to make the acoustical conditions, the space for dancing and the placement of musicians as favourable as possible. The more the purpose of the event shifts from the sacred towards the secular, the more music and dance will be the primary aspect of the event and will dictate the setting. Concert halls, opera houses, ballrooms, and music pavilions provide the opportunity for architects and engineers to combine functional criteria with aesthetic ones; they are among the most neglected objects of music-iconographical research. (For harmonic proportions in the other arts, see below, §III, 5.)
As to the interior decorations of rooms in which music is performed, the most prominent instance of a music room in Western culture with completely integrated decoration is the studiolo of the Italian Renaissance. Musical instruments and music books are represented in intarsia technique together with bookcases and other symbols of learning and the sophisticated use of leisure. A visual element in every music room is the musical instrument itself, be it the upright piano in the 19th-century bourgeois household or the qin suspended on the wall of a Chinese scholar's study.
A very popular type of book is the illustrated biography of a composer that displays a hotch-potch of visualia with rarely any discrimination, let alone any iconographical commentary. Nevertheless, in as far as the visual environment of a musician shapes his or her personality, and as far as it influences the users of the book, it is relevant for a psychogram of the musician and for reception history.
The increasing interest of 19th-century European artists in synaesthetic experiences led to the search for inspiration from outside the original medium. In music the result is the cultivation of programme music with literary themes as the main source and paintings an additional one (see Programme music, §2). Liszt used both media as an inspiration for his compositions.
His Totentanz (for piano and orchestra, 1839–65) drew from the dance of death cycles and the 14th-century painting Triumph of Death in the Camposanto of Pisa. His Hunnenschlacht for two pianos was inspired by the painting of that title by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1856–7). Together with Dionys Brucker he played it in front of the picture.
The popularity of musical ideas derived from the visual arts decreased early in the 20th century – just at the time when a new artistic medium, film, made its appearance. The successor of music after paintings was film music, which in turn was replaced by composition for the sound track of films (see Film music).
While a categorical split between sacred and secular music themes would frequently fail to do justice both to the contextual complexities of musical occasions and to the multiplicity of an image's meanings, it can nevertheless be said that in pictures with religious, metaphysical and philosophical subject matter the layers of meaning tend to be more numerous. It is no coincidence that the doctrine of fourfold meaning of scripture (and image) mentioned above was developed by theologians. On the other hand, sacred themes, in as far as they depict rituals, are also tied to the reality of any given culture, past or present. Some of the most important musical themes in religious art are considered below.
In Christian and Jewish musical iconography Bible stories furnish a number of themes, in use for nearly 2000 years. The most important ones are:
(c) Universal acclamation by the believer to God (after Psalm cl);
(e) David playing his lyre or harp to soothe Saul's mental illness (1 Samuel xvi.14–23);
(f) The transfer of the Ark to Jerusalem with music and David dancing (2 Samuel vi.12–16);
(g) King David performing psalms with his lyre or harp (Psalms, passim);
(i) The derision at Christ on the Cross;
(j) The angels of the Last Judgment blowing trumpets or horns (Revelation, passim);
(k) The acclamation of the 24 Elders to the Lord (Revelation, passim).
(b) shamanistic rituals linked to curing the sick, calling down rain, hunting or warfare;
A list of secular pictorial themes that pertain to music should include:
(d) pictures of music as a healing force, sponsor of love etc.;
(e) pictures of popular music in the open, in the tavern, the bordello etc.;
(f) representation of popular music in popular art; and
An illustration to a book of Tang poems (fig.5) may serve as an example (see Gulik, H1940, 2/1969, pp.148–9). It shows a landscape with mountains and water and, in the lower left corner, a human abode where a scholar plays the qin. More than any other instrument, the qin is literally ‘in tune’ with nature. In this scene the musician is inspired by the flowering plum tree; there is a twig from it in a vase on his table. This plant is a symbol of spring, with strong erotic connotations and allegedly highly susceptible to music: music-making brings nature and man into harmonious union.
Except for architecture, Western art began to pursue these concepts only in the 19th century.
Terminological considerations may be of crucial importance. The instrument in a picture (fig.7) may be determined in modern language as a triangular psaltery; following the organological terminology of Sachs and Hornbostel it may be called a box zither, in the class of chordophones; or the caption ‘psalterium decacordum’ (although it shows 20 strings) may be followed linking it to the scientific language of the contemporary medieval scholar; it can be called a ‘rotte’, as Herrad of Landsberg probably did in her mother tongue.
f: instruments, notation and performance (europe)
i: instruments and performance (outside europe)
j: the musical instrument as an image
k: contextual sources (performance sites)
For further bibliography see Musicology.
based on MGG2 (vi, 1319–43), by permission of Bärenreiter
MGG2 (‘Musik und bildende Kunst’, R. Ketteler, J. Jewanski and L. Finscher; ‘Musikikonographie’, T. Seebass)
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Imago musicae (1984–) [annual bibl.]
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G. Kastner: Les sirènes (Paris, 1858)
E. Mâle: ‘Les arts libéraux dans la statuaire du Moyen Age’, Revue archéologique, 3rd ser., xvii (1891), 334–46
J. von Schlosser: ‘Giusto's Fresken in Padua und die Vorläufer der Stanza della Segnatura’, Jb der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses, new ser., xvii (1896), 13–100
A. Delatt: ‘La musique au tombeau dans l'antiquité’, Revue archéologique, 4th ser., xxi (1913), 318–32
L. Schrade: ‘Die Darstellung der Töne an den Kapitellen der Abteikirche zu Cluni: ein Beitrag zum Symbolismus in mittelalterlicher Kunst’, DVLG, vii (1929), 229–66
L. Castellani: ‘L'estasi di S. Cecilia di Raffaello’, Arte cristiana, xxiii (1935)
W. Gurlitt: ‘Die Musik in Raffaels Heiliger Caecilia’, JbMP 1938, 84–97
E. Reuter: Les représentations de la musique dans la sculpture romane en France (Paris, 1938)
L. Parigi: Musiche in pittura (Signa, 1939)
C. de Tolnay: ‘The Music of the Universe: Notes on a Painting by Bicci di Lorenzo’, Journal of the Walters Art Gallery, vi (1943), 83–104
M.-T. d'Alverny: ‘La Sagesse et ses sept filles: recherches sur les allégories de la Philosophie et des Arts libéraux du IXe au XII siècle’, Mélanges dédiés à la mémoire de Félix Grat, i (Paris, 1946), 245–78
K. Meyer: ‘The Eight Gregorian Modes on the Cluny Capitals’, Art Bulletin, xxxiv (1952), 75–94
E.E. Lowinsky: ‘The Music in St. Jerome's Study’, Art Bulletin, xli (1959), 298–301
G. Bandmann: Melancholie und Musik: ikonographische Studien (Cologne, 1960)
A.P. de Mirimonde: ‘Les sujets musicaux chez Vermeer de Delft’, Gazette des beaux-arts, 6th ser., lvii (1961), 29–52
H. Steger: David rex et propheta: König David als vorbildliche Verkörperung des Herrschers und Dichters im Mittelalter, nach Bilddarstellungen des achten bis zwölften Jahrhunderts (Nuremberg, 1961)
R. Hammerstein: Die Musik der Engel (Berne and Munich, 1962, 2/1990)
M.-T. d'Alverny: ‘Les muses et les sphères célestes’, Storia e letteratura, xciv (1964), ii, 7–19
A.P. de Mirimonde: ‘Les concerts des Muses chez les maîtres du nord’, Gazette des beaux-arts, lxiii (1964), 129–58
F. Lesure: Musica e società (Milan, 1966; Eng. trans., 1968, as Music and Art in Society)
E. Winternitz: Musical Instruments and their Symbolism in Western Art (New York, 1967, 2/1979)
D. Schuberth: Kaiserliche Liturgie: die Einbeziehung von Musikinstrumenten, insbesondere der Orgel, in den frühmittelalterlichen Gottesdienst (Göttingen, 1968)
E. Panofsky: Problems in Titian, mostly Iconographic (London, 1969)
K. Meyer-Baer: Music of the Spheres and the Dance of Death (Princeton, NJ, 1970)
A. Pilipczuk: ‘Ein musikalisches Kartenspiel aus dem letzten Drittel des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Jb der Hamburger Kunstsammlungen, xvi (1971), 119–46
T. Seebass: ‘Die Bedeutung des Utrechter Psalters für die Musikgeschichte’, Kunst-en muziekhistorische Bijdragen tot de bestudering van het Utrechts Psalterium (Utrecht, 1973), 33–48
T. Seebass: Musikdarstellung und Psalterillustration im früheren Mittelalter (Berne, 1973)
R. Hammerstein: Diabolus in musica: Studien zur Ikonographie der Musik im Mittelalter (Berne and Munich, 1974)
P.E. Carapezza: ‘Regina angelorum in musica picta: Walter Frye e il “Maitre au feuillage brodé”’, RIM, x (1975), 134–54
C. Cuttler: ‘Job – Music – Christ’, Bulletin [Institut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique], xv (1975), 86–94
P. Fischer: Music in Paintings of the Low Countries in the 16th and 17th Centuries (Amsterdam, 1975)
S. Wichmann: Carl Spitzweg, 1808-1885: Ständchen-, Serenaden und Straßensängerbilder (Starnberg, 1975)
A.P. de Mirimonde: L'iconographie musicale sous les rois Bourbons: la musique dans les arts plastiques (XVIIe–XVIIIe siècles) (Paris, 1975–7)
S. Jareš: ‘Traktát “Zrcadlo člověčieho spasenie” jako hudebně ikonografický pramen’ [The treatise “Speculum humanae salvationis” as a source for musical iconography], HV, xiii (1976), 81–5
H.C. Slim: The Prodigal Son at the Whores': Music, Art, and Drama (Irvine, CA, 1976)
A.M. Kettering: ‘Rembrandt's “Flute Player”: a Unique Treatment of Pastoral’, Simiolus, ix (1977), 19–44
R.D. Leppert: The Theme of Music in Flemish Paintings of the Seventeenth Century (Munich, 1977)
A.P. de Mirimonde: ‘Rubens et la musique’, Jaarboek van het Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerpen (1977), 97–197
C.J. Oja: ‘The Still-Life Paintings of William Michael Harnett (their Reflections upon Nineteenth-Century American Musical Culture)’, MQ, lxiii (1977), 505–23
J. Braun: ‘Musical Iconography in the Byzantine Manuscripts from the Greek patriarchate in Jerusalem and St. Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai: a Preliminary Report’, Tatzlil xviii/10 (1978), 90–95
B. Disertori: La musica nei quadri antichi (Trent, 1978)
P.C. Finney: ‘Orpheus – David: a Connection in Iconography between Greco-Roman Judaism and Early Christianity’, Journal of Jewish Art, v (1978), 6–15
R.D. Leppert: Arcadia at Versailles: Noble Amateur Musicians and their Musettes and Hurdy-Gurdies at the French Court (c. 1660–1789) – a Visual Study (Amsterdam, 1978)
A.P. Mirimonde: ‘Les vanités à personnages et à instruments de musique’, Gazette des beaux-arts, 6th ser., xcii (1978), 115–30; xciv (1979), 61–8
W.S. Sheard: ‘The Widener “Orpheus”: Attribution, Type, Invention’, Collaboration in Italian Renaissance Art, ed. W.S. Sheard and J.T. Paoletti (New Haven, CT, 1978), 189–231
A. Ziino: ‘Laudi e miniature fiorentine del primo trecento’, Studi musicali, vii (1978), 39–84
B.R. Hanning: ‘Glorious Apollo: Poetic and Political Themes in the First Opera’, Renaissance Quarterly, xxxii (1979), 485–513
T. Seebass: ‘Venus und die Musikwissenschaft oder Von der Universalität eines reformatorischen Buchmachers’, Totum me libris dedo: Festschrift zum 80. Geburtstag von Adolf Seebass, ed. A. Moirandat, H. Spilker and V. Tammann (Basle, 1979), 187–99
E. Smulikowska: ‘The Symbolism of Musical Scenes and Ornamental Motifs in Organ Cases’, Organ Yearbook, x (1979), 5–14
K.-A. Wirth: ‘Die kolorierten Federzeichnungen im Cod.2975 der Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek: ein Beitrag zur Ikonographie der Artes Liberales im 15. Jahrhundert’, Anzeiger des Germanischen Nationalmuseums (1979), 67–110
R. Hammerstein: Tanz und Musik des Todes: die mittelalterlichen Totentänze und ihr Nachleben (Berne and Munich, 1980)
D. Hoffmann-Axthelm: ‘Instrumentensymbolik und Aufführungspraxis: zum Verhältnis von Symbolik und Realität in der mittelalterlichen Musikanschauung’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, iv (1980), 9–90
D. Rosand: ‘“Ermeneutica amorosa”: Observations on the Interpretation of Titian's Venuses’, Tiziano e Venezia: Venice 1976 (Venice, 1980), 375–81
L. Seth: ‘Vermeer och van Veens Amorum emblemata’, Kunsthistorisk tidskrift, xlix/1 (1980), 17–40
U. Fabricius: ‘Musik und Musikinstrumente in Darstellungen der frühchristlichen Kunst’, Festschrift für Bruno Grusnick, ed. R. Saltzwedel and K.D. Koch (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1981), 54–80
K.J. Hellerstedt: ‘A Traditional Motif in Rembrandt's Etchings: the Hurdy-Gurdy Player’, Oud Holland, xcv (1981), 16–30
R.D. Leppert: ‘Johann Georg Plazer: Music and Visual Allegory’, Music East and West: Essays in Honor of Walter Kaufmann, ed. T. Noblitt (New York, 1981), 209–24
F. Maschke: Die Kunst im Dienst der Staatsidee Kaiser Karls VI: Ikonographie, Ikonologie und Programmatik des “Kaiserstils” (Berlin and New York, 1981)
E. Höhle and others: ‘Die Neidhart-Fresken im Haus Tuchlauben 19 in Wien: zum Fund profaner Wandmalereien der Zeit um 1400’, Österreichische Zeitschrift für Kunst und Denkmalpflege, xxxvi/3–4 (1982), 110–44
C.-H. Mahling: ‘Bemerkungen zur “Illustrierten Zeitung” als Quelle zur Musikgeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts’, FAM, xxix (1982), 158–60
D. Möller: Untersuchungen zur Symbolik der Musikinstrumente im Narrenschiff des Sebastian Brant (Regensburg, 1982)
H.C. Worbs: Das Dampfkonzert: Musik and Musikleben des 19. Jahrhunderts in der Karikatur (Wilhelmshaven, 1982)
L'estasi di Santa Cecilia di Raffaello da Urbino nella Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna (Bologna, 1983) [exhibition catalogue]
M.S. Podles: ‘Virtue and Vice: Paintings and Sculpture in Two Pictures from the Walters Collection’, Journal of the Walters Art Gallery, xli (1983), 29–44
T. Seebass: ‘The Visualisation of Music through Pictorial Imagery and Notation in Late Mediaeval France’, Studies in the Performance of Late Mediaeval Music, ed. S. Boorman (Cambridge, 1983), 19–33
H.M. Brown: ‘St. Augustine, Lady Music, and the Gittern in Fourteenth-Century Italy’, MD, xxxviii (1984), 25–65
J.W. McKinnon: ‘The Fifteen Temple Steps and the Gradual Psalms’, Imago musicae, i (1984), 29–49
H.C. Slim: ‘Paintings of Lady Concerts and the Transmission of “Jouissance vous donneray”’, Imago musicae, i (1984), 51–73
N. van Deusen: ‘Manuscript and Milieu: Illustration in Liturgical Music Manuscripts’, Gordon Athol Anderson, 1929–81, in memoriam, ed. L.A. Dittmer, i (Henryville, PA, 1984), 71–86
E. Weddingen: ‘Jacopo Tintoretto und die Musik’, Artibus et Historiae, x (1984), 67–119
C. Fernández-Ladedra: Iconografía musical de la Catedral de Pamplona (Pamplona, 1985)
J. Hermand: Adolf Menzel, das Flötenkonzert in Sanssouci: ein realistisch geträumtes Preussenbild (Frankfurt, 1985)
I. Vierimaa: ‘Music in the Struggle between Good and Evil: Mythical Motifs in Finnish Medieval Frescoes’, Musiikin suunta, vii/1 (1985), 21–31
U. Birk: Ikonologische Studien zur Darstellung Apolls in der bildenden Kunst von ca.1400–1600 (diss., U. of Bonn, 1986)
E. Dietrich: ‘Ikonographische Darstellungen der Lyra als Sternbild in mittelalterlichen Handschriften der österreichischen Nationalbibliothek zu Wien’, SMw, xxxvii (1986), 7–12
M. Holl: ‘“Der Musica Triumph”: ein Bilddokument von 1607 zur Auffassung des Humanismus in Deutschland’, Imago musicae, iii (1986), 9–30
E.E. Lowinsky: Cipriano de Rore's Venus Motet: its Poetic and Pictorial Sources (Provo, UT, 1986)
N.K. Moran: Singers in Late Byzantine and Slavonic Painting (Leiden, 1986)
N. Salomon: ‘Political Iconography in a Painting by Jan Miense Molenaer’, Hoogsteder-Naumann Mercury, iv (1986), 23–38
J. Bernstock: ‘Guercino's “Et in Arcadia Ego” and “Apollo Flaying Marsyas”’, Studies in Iconography, xi (1987), 137–83
M.L. Evan: ‘New Light on the “Sforziada” Frontispieces of Giovan Pietro Birago’, British Library Journal, xiii (1987), 232–47
G. Francastel: ‘Le “Concert champêtre” du Louvre et les espaces signifiants’, La Letteratura, la rappresentazione, la musica al tempo e nei luoghi di Giorgione, ed. M. Muraro (Rome, 1987), 215–21
F. Gétreau: ‘Watteau et la musique: réalité et interprétations’, Antoine Watteau (1684–1721), le peintre, son temps et sa légende, ed. F. Moureau and M.M. Grasselli (Paris and Geneva, 1987), 235–46
M. Jullian and G. Le Vot: ‘Notes sur la cohérence formelle des miniatures à sujet musical du manuscrit b.I.2 de l'Escorial’, RdMc, x (1987), 105–14
T. Seebass: ‘The Illustration of Music Theory in the Late Middle Ages: Some Thoughts on its Principles and a Few Examples’, Music Theory and its Sources: Antiquity and the Middle Ages: South Bend, IN, 1987, 197–234
H.C. Slim: ‘Tintoretto's “Music-Making Women” at Dresden’, Imago musicae, iv (1987), 45–78
T. Wind: ‘Musical Participation in Sixteenth-Century Triumphal Entries in the Low Countries’, TVNM, xxxvii (1987), 111–69
F. Dobbins: ‘Le concert dans l'oeuf et la musique dans la tradition de Jérôme Bosch’, Musiques, signes, images: liber amicorum François Lesure, ed. J.-M. Fauquet (Geneva, 1988), 99–116
J.H. Planer: ‘Damned Music: the Symbolism of the Bagpipes in the Art of Hieronymus Bosch and his Followers’, Music from the Middle Ages through the Twentieth Century: Essays in Honor of Gwynn S. McPeek, ed. C.P. Comberiati and M.C. Steel (New York, 1988), 335–57
E.A. Bowles: Musical Ensembles in Festival Books, 1500–1800: an Iconographical and Documentary Survey (Ann Arbor, 1989)
D.J. Buch: ‘The Coordination of Text, Illustration, and Music in a Seventeenth-Century Lute Manuscript: La rhétorique des dieux’, Imago musicae, vi (1989), 39–81
F.T. Camiz: ‘La “Musica” nei quadri del Caravaggio’, Quaderni di Palazzo Venezia, vi (1989), 198–221
N. van Deusen: The Harp and the Soul: Essays in Medieval Music (Lewiston, NY, 1989)
O.H. Jander: ‘The Radoux Portrait of Beethoven's Grandfather: its Symbolic Message’, Imago musicae, vi (1989), 83–107
D. Manon: ‘The Singing “Lute-Player” by Caravaggio from the Barberini Collection, Painted for Cardinal Del Monte’, Burlington Magazine, cxxxii (1990), 5–20
E. Motzkin: ‘The Meaning of Titian's “Concert champêtre” in the Louvre’, Gazette des beaux-arts, 6th ser., cxvi (1990), 51–65
H.C. Slim: ‘Dosso Dossi's “Allegory at Florence” about Music’, JAMS, xliii (1990), 43–98
L. Beschi: ‘Mousikè Téchne e Thánatos: l'immagine della musica sulle lekythoi funerarie attiche a fondo bianco’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 39–59
J. Braun: ‘Die Musikikonographie des Dionysoskultes im römischen Palästina’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 109–33
A. Buckley: ‘Music-Related Imagery on Early Christian Insular Sculpture: Identification, Context, Function’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 135–99
A. Goulaki-Voutira: ‘Observations on Domestic Music Making in Vase Paintings of the Fifth Century B.C.’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 73–94
T. Seebass: ‘The Power of Music in Greek Vase Painting: Reflections on the Visualization of rhythmos (Order) and epaoidē (Enchanting Song)’, Imago musicae, viii (1991), 11–37
V. Herzner: ‘Tizians “Venus mit dem Orgelspieler”’, Begegnungen: Festschrift Peter Anselm Riedl zum 60. Geburtstag (Worms, 1993), 80–103
T. Connolly: Mourning into Joy: Music, Raphael, and Saint Cecilia (New Haven, 1994)
R. Hammerstein: Von gerissenen Saiten und singenden Zikaden: Studien zur Emblematik der Musik (Tübingen, 1994)
S. Hirsch: ‘Die Ältesten von Oloron und ihr Umkreis: zur Bewertung restaurierter Bildquellen’, Musikalische Ikonographie: Hamburg 1991 [HJbMw, xii (1994)], 147–56
E. Genovesi: Le grottesche della ‘Volta Pinta’ in Assisi (Assisi, 1995)
C. Bianco, M. Carlone and C. Santarelli: ‘Musica picta: iconografia musicale in Piemonte dall’età ottoniana alle soglie del Rinascimento’, Musica peregrina: presenze della musica medievale in Piemonte, ed. C. Bianco (Cavallermaggiore, 1996), 69–115
L. Charles-Dominique: ‘L’iconographie musicale, révélateur de la marginalité: l’example des fêtes toulousaines, officielles, publiques, civiles et religieuses, du XVe au XVIIIe siècle’, Imago musicae, xiii (1996), 145–64
G.C. Bott: Der Klang im Bild: Evaristo Baschenis und die Erfindung des Musikstillebens (Berlin, 1997)
BoydenH
M. Seiffert: ‘Bildzeugnisse des 16. Jahrhunderts für die instrumentale Begleitung des Gesanges und den Ursprung des Musikkupferstiches’, AMw, i (1918–19), 49–67
H. Angles, ed.: La música de las Cantigas de Santa María del Rey Alfonso el Sabio (Barcelona, 1943–64)
V. Denis: De muziekinstrumenten in de Nederlanden en in Italië naar hun afbeelding in de 15e-eeuwsche kunst (Utrecht, 1944; partial Eng. trans. in GSJ, ii, 1949, 32–46)
E.A. Bowles: ‘Haut et Bas: the Grouping of Musical Instruments in the Middle Ages’, MD, viii (1954), 115–40
R. Hammerstein: ‘Instrumenta Hieronymi’, AMw, xvi (1959), 117–34
H. Steger: ‘Die Rotte: Studien über ein germanisches Musikinstrument im Mittelalter’, DVLG, xxxv (1961), 96–147
W. Bachmann: ‘Das byzantinische Musikinstrumentarium’, Anfänge der slavischen Musik: Bratislava 1964, 125–38
W. Bachmann: Die Anfänge des Streichinstrumentenspiels (Leipzig, 1964, 2/1966; Eng. trans., 1969, as The Origins of Bowing and the Development of Bowed Instruments up to the 13th Century)
R. Hammerstein: ‘Zu Quellenkritik und Forschungsaufgaben der Instrumentenkunde des 9. bis 11. Jahrhunderts’, IMSCR IX: Salzburg 1964, ii, 179–82
H. Heyde: Trompete und Trompetenblasen im europäischen Mittelalter (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1965)
J. Perrot: L'orgue de ses origines héllenistiques à la fin du XIIIe siècle ’, Medieval and Renaissance Studies, ii (1968), 74–97
E.M. Ripin: ‘The Two-Manual Harpsichord in Flanders Before 1650’, GSJ, xxi (1968), 33–9
H.J. Zingel: König Davids Harfe in der abendländischen Kunst (Cologne, 1968)
K. Kos: ‘Muzički instrumenti u srednjovjekovnoj likovnoj umjetnosti hrvatske’, Rad Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti, no.351 (1969), 167–270
V. Ravizza: Das instrumentale Ensemble von 1400–1550 in Italien: Wandel eines Klangbildes (Berne, 1970)
G.S. Bedrock: ‘The Problem of Instrumental Combination in the Middle Ages’, RBM, xxv (1971), 3–67
P. Kuret: Glasbeni instrumenti na srednjeveskih freskah na slovenskem [Musical instruments in medieval Slovenian frescoes] (Ljubljana, 1973)
C.H. Mahling: ‘Der Dudelsack in westeuropäischer Plastik und Malerei’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis IV: Balatonalmádi 1973, 63–9
E. Stockmann, ed.: Studia instrumentorium musicae popularis IV: Balatonalmádi 1973
V. Scherliess: ‘Notizen zur musikalischen Ikonographie’, AnMc, no.14 (1974), 1–16; no.15 (1975), 21–8
H.M. Brown: ‘Instruments and Voices in the Fifteenth-Century Chanson’, Current Thought in Musicology, ed. J.W. Grubbs (Austin, 1976), 89–137
E.F. Barassi: Strumenti musicali e testimonianze teoriche nel medio evo (Cremona, 1979)
C. Deconinck: ‘Le luth dans les arts figurés des Pays-Bas au XVIe siècle: étude iconologique’, Revue Belge d'Archéologie et d'Histoire de l'Art, xlviii (1979), 3–43
M. del Rosario Alvarez-Martínez: ‘Aportaciones para un estudio organografico en la plena edad media los instrumentos musicales en los beatos’, Homenaje a Alfonso Trujillo (Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 1982), 47–73
E.A. Bowles: ‘A Preliminary Checklist of Fifteenth-Century Representations of Organs in Paintings and Manuscript Illuminations’, Organ Yearbook, xiii (1982), 5–30
E. Hickmann: ‘Eine ägyptische Harfendarstellung aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit’, Jb für musikalische Volks- und Völkerkunde, x (1982), 9–19
E.F. Barassi: ‘Strumenti musicali ed esecutori nella società medievale’, Lavorare nel medio evo: Todi 1980 (Perugia, 1983), 297–370
H.M. Brown: ‘The Trecento Harp’, Studies in the Performance of Late Mediaeval Music, ed. S. Boorman (Cambridge, 1983), 35–73
J. McKinnon: ‘Fifteenth-Century Northern Book Painting and the a cappella Question: an Essay in Iconographic Method’, Studies in the Performance of Late Mediaeval Music, ed. S. Boorman (Cambridge, 1983), 1–17
G. Stradner: Spielpraxis und Instrumentarium um 1500: dargestellt an Sebastian Virdungs ‘Musica getutscht’ (Basel 1511) (Vienna, 1983)
R. Pejović: Predstave muzičkih instrumenata u srednjovekovnoj Srbiji [Musical instruments in medieval Serbia], ed. S. Rajičić (Belgrade, 1984) [Eng. summary]
P. Reidemeister, ed.: ‘Mittelalterliche Musikinstrumente: Ikonographie und Spielpraxis’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, viii (1984)
I. Woodfield: The Early History of the Viol (Cambridge, 1984)
C. Young: ‘Zur Klassifikation und ikonographischen Interpretation mittelalterlicher Zupfinstrumente’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, viii (1984), 67–104
E.F. Barassi: ‘L'iconografia come fonte di conoscenza organologica’, Per una carta europea del restauro: conservazione, restauro e riuso degli strumenti musicali antichi: Venice 1985, 35–41
M. Remnant: English Bowed Instruments from Anglo-Saxon to Tudor Times (Oxford, 1986)
M. del Rosario Alvarez-Martínez: ‘Los instrumentos musicales en los códices Alfonsinos: su tipología, su uso y su origen – algunos problemas iconográficos’, RdMc, x (1987), 56–104
R. Meucci: ‘Lo strumento del bucinator A. Surus e il cod. Pal.Lat.909 di Vegezio’, Bonner Jb des Rheinischen Landesmuseums, clxxxvii (1987), 259–72
R. Pestell: ‘Medieval Art and the Performance of Medieval Music’, EMc, xv (1987), 56–68
K. Marshall: Iconographical Evidence for the Late-Medieval Organ in French, Flemish, and English Manuscripts (New York, 1989)
K. Polk: ‘Voices and Instruments: Soloists and Ensembles in the 15th Century’, EMc, xviii (1990), 179–98
R. Hammerstein: ‘Imaginäres Gesamtkunstwerk: die niederländischen Bildmotetten des 16. Jahrhunderts’, Die Motette: Beiträge zu ihrer Gattungsgeschichte, ed. H. Schneider and H.-J. Winkler (Mainz, 1991), 165–203
M. von Schaik: The Harp in the Middle Ages: the Symbolism of a Musical Instrument (Amsterdam and Atlanta, GA, 1992)
C. Homo-Lechner: Sons et instruments de musique au Moyen Age: archéologie musicale dans l'Europe du VIIe au XIVe siècles (Paris, 1996)
I. Mačák: ‘Zur Verifikation ikonographischer Informationen über Musikinstrumente’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis IV: Balatonalmádi 1973, 49–51
W. Brednich: ‘Liedkolportage and geistlicher Bänkelsang: neue Funde zur Ikonographie der Liedpublizistik’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxii (1977), 71–9
R. Brückmann: ‘Das Bänkelsang-Motiv in der deutschen Karikatur von 1848/49’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxii (1977), 80–94
K. Kos: ‘St Kümmernis and her Fiddler: an Approach to Iconology of Pictorial Folk Art’, SMH, xix (1977), 251–66
R. Pejović: ‘Folk Musical Instruments in Mediavel and Renaissance Art of South Slav Peoples’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis VIII: Piran, Croatia, 1983, 126–43
D. Pistone: ‘La musique dans le Charivari’, Revue internationale de musique française, no.10 (1983), 7–54
F. Crane: ‘Black American Music in Pictures: Some Themes and Opportunities’, Black Music Research: Washington DC 1985 [Black Music Research Journal (1986)], 27–47
C. Marcel-Dubois: ‘Le triangle et ses représentations comme signe social et culturel’, Imago musicae, iv (1987), 121–35
K. Kos: ‘Osten und Westen in der Feld- und Militärmusik an der türkischen Grenze’, Imago musicae, v (1988), 109–27
T. Seebass: ‘Léopold Robert and Italian Folk Music’, World of Music, xxx/3 (1988), 59–84
A. Florea: ‘Music in Carol Popp de Szathmary's Paintings’, Imago musicae, vi (1989), 109–41
F. Guizzi and N. Staiti, eds.: Le forme dei suoni: l'iconografia del tamburello in Italia, Palazzo Pitti, Florence, 6 July – 6 Aug 1989 (Florence, 1989) [exhibition catalogue]
A. Goulaki-Voutira: ‘Neugriechischer Tanz und Musik aus europäischer Sicht’, Imago musicae, vii (1990), 189–232
F. Guizzi: ‘The Sounds of povertà contenta: Cityscape, Landscape, Soundscape, and Musical Portraiture in Italian Painting of the 17th and 18th Centuries’, Imago musicae, vii (1990), 115–47
T. Seebass: ‘Idyllic Arcadia and Italian Musical Reality: Experiences of German Writers and Artists (1770–1835)’ Imago musicae, vii (1990), 149–87
L. Schermann: ‘Musizierende Genien in der religiösen Kunst des birmanischen Buddhismus’, Festschrift für Friedrich Hirth zum seinem 75. Geburtstag, ed. O. Kümmel, W. Cohn and E. Hänisch (Berlin, 1920), 345–53
R. van Gulik: The Lore of the Chinese Lute: an Essay in the Ideology of the Ch'in (Tokyo, 1940, 2/1969)
J. Agthe: Die Abbildungen in Reiseberichten aus Ozeanien als Quellen für die Völkerkunde (16–18. Jahrhundert) (Munich, 1969)
A.P. de Mirmonde: ‘La musique orientale dans les oeuvres de l'école française du XVIIe siècle’, Revue du Louvre et des Musées de France, xix (1969), 231–46
F.Ll. Harrison: Time, Place and Music: an Anthology of Ethnomusicological Observation c.1550 to c.1800, Source Materials and Studies in Ethnomusicology, i (Amsterdam, 1973)
Lee Hye-ku: ‘Musical Paintings in a Fourth-Century Korean Tomb’, Korea Journal, xiv/3 (1974), 4–14
Japanse prenten met muziek/Japanese Woodcuts with Music (The Hague, 1975) [exhibition catalogue]
G.H. Karakhanian: ‘Reliefs of Musicians on the Khatchkars of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Century’, Lraber hasarakan gitouthiounneri, cccxcix/3 (1976), 99–105 [in Armenian, with summary in Russ.]
F. Willet: ‘A Contribution to the History of Musical Instruments among the Yoruba’, Essays for a Humanist: an Offering to Klaus Wachsmann (New York, 1977), 350–86
E. Bassani: ‘Un corno afro-portoghese con decorazione africana: gli olifanti afro-portoghesi della Sierra Leone’, Critica d'Arte, 2nd ser., xxv (1979), 167–74, 175–201
M. Pirazzoli-t'Serstevens: ‘The Bronze Drums of Shizhai shan: their Social and Ritual Significance’, Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, ed. R.B. Smith and W. Watson (New York, 1979), 125–36
G. Sen: ‘Music and Musical Instruments in the Paintings of Akbar Nama’, National Centre for the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, viii/4 (1979), 1–7
F. Feuchtwanger: ‘Tlatilco-Terrakotten von Akrobaten, Ballspielern, Musikanten und Tanzenden’, Baessler-Archiv, xxviii (1980), 131–53
K. Reinhard: ‘Turkish Miniatures as Sources of Music History’, Music East and West: Essays in Honor of Walter Kaufmann, ed. T. Noblitt (New York, 1981), 143–166
P. Crossley-Holland: Musical Instruments in Tibetan Legend and Folklore (Los Angeles, 1982)
R. Flora: ‘Miniature Paintings: Important Sources for Music History’, Performing Arts in India, ed. B. Wade (Berkeley, CA, 1983), 196–230
W. Denny: ‘Music and Musicians in Islamic Art’, Asian Music, xvii/1 (1985), 37–68
D. Gramit: ‘The Music Paintings of the Capella Palatina in Palermo’, Imago musicae, ii (1985), 9–49
M. Hariharan and G. Kuppuswamy: Music in Indian Art (Delhi, 1985)
A. Pilipczuk: Elfenbeinhörner im sakralen Königtum Schwarzafrikas (Bonn, 1985)
A. Vickers: ‘The Realm of Senses: Images of the Court Music of Pre-Colonial Bali’, Imago musicae, ii (1985), 143–77
I. Cavallini: ‘La musica turca nelle testimonianze dei viaggiatori e nella trattatistica del Sei/Settecento’, RIM, xxi (1986), 144–69
S.E. Lee: ‘“Listening to the Ch'in” by Liu Sung-Nien’, Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art, lxxiii (1986), 372–87
D. Waterhouse: ‘Korean Music, Trick Horsemanship and Elephants in Tokugawa Japan’, The Oral and the Literate Music, ed. Y. Tokumaru and O. Yamaguti (Tokyo, 1986), 353–70
O. Mensink: ‘Hachogane, ’t gebeyer of 't Musiek van achten’, Jaarboek Haags Gemeentemuseum 1991 (1992), 6–23
Egaka reta sairei, Kunitachi Museum for the History of Popular Culture, Tokyo, 15 Nov – 18 Dec 1994 (Tokyo, 1994) [exhibition catalogue]
T. Steppan, ed.: Die Artuqiden-Schale im Tiroler Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum Innsbruck: mittelalterliche Emailkunst zwischen Orient und Occident, Innsbruck U., 4 – 13 May 1995 (Munich, 1995) [exhibition catalogue]
J. Kunst and R. Goris: Hindoe-Javaansche Muziekinstrumenten (Weltevreden, 1927; Eng. trans., rev., 1968)
A. Huth: Die Musikinstrumente Ost-Turkistans bis zum 11. Jahrhundert nach Christi (diss., Berlin U., 1928)
C. Marcel-Dubois: Les instruments de musique de l'Inde ancienne (Paris, 1941)
K. Finsterbusch: ‘Die Mundorgeln des Museums für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig und die Darstellungen des Instrumentes in Ost- und Südostasien’, Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig, xi (1961), 123–40, pls.123–40
S. Kishibe: ‘A Chinese Painting of the T'ang Court Women's Orchestra’, The Commonwealth of Music, in Honor of Curt Sachs, ed. G. Reese and R. Brandel (New York, 1965), 104–17
G.H. and N. Tarlekar: Musical Instruments in Indian Sculpture (Puna, 1972)
K. Vatsyayan: Traditions of Indian Folk Dance (New Delhi, 1976, enlarged 2/1987)
R.T. Mok: ‘Ancient Musical Instruments Unearthed in 1972 from the Number One Hand Tomb at Ma Wang Tui, Changsa: Translation and Commentary of Chinese Reports’, Asian Music, x/1 (1978), 39–91
R. Günther: ‘Abbild oder Zeichen: Bemerkungen zur Darstellung von Musikinstrumenten an indischen Skulpturen im Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum zu Köln’, Ars Musica, musica scientia: Festschrift Heinrich Hüschen, ed. D. Altenburg (Cologne, 1980), 198–211
G. Siromoney: ‘Musical Instruments from Pallava Sculpture’, Kalakshetra Quarterly, ii/4 (1980), 11–20
Collection of Sources of Musical Instruments (Tokyo, 1980–90) [in Jap.]
M. Williamson: ‘The Iconography of Arched Harps in Burma’, Music and Tradition: Essays … presented to Laurence Picken, ed. D.R. Widdess and R.F. Wolpert (Cambridge, 1981), 209–28
S. Kashima: ‘Kugo no zuzogaku – ongaku – zuzogaku no ichishiron’ [Iconography of the kugo (harp)], Ongaku kenkyū, Kunitachi College of Music, v (1983), 35–86
M. Tajima: ‘About Historical Changes in Depictions of Musical Instruments: an Iconographical Study of Musical Instruments in Amida-Raigozu’, Ongaku kenkyū, Kunitachi College of Music, v (1983), 102–79 [in Jap.]
Tong Kin-woon: ‘Shang Musical Instruments’, Asian Music, xiv/2 (1983), 17–182
J. Bor: ‘The Voice of the Sārangī: an Illustrated History of Bowing in India’, Quarterly Journal of the National Centre for Performing Arts, xv–xvi/3–4, 1 (1986–7), 9–183
H.D. Bodman: Chinese Musical Iconography: a History of Musical Instruments Depicted in Chinese Art (Taibei, 1987)
R.L. Hardgrave and S.M. Slawek: ‘Instruments and Music Culture in Eighteenth-Century India: the Solvyn Portraits’, Asian Music, xx/1 (1988), 1–92
Zheng Ruzhong: ‘Musical Instruments in the Wall Paintings of Dunhuang’, CHIME, no.7 (1993), 4–56
B.C. Wade: ‘Performing the Drone in Hindustani Classical Music: what Mughal Paintings show us to hear’, World of Music, xxxviii/2 (1996), 41–67
G. Servières: La décoration artistique des buffets d'orgues (Paris and Brussels, 1928)
C. Sachs: Geist und Werden der Musikinstrumente (Berlin, 1929)
D.H. Meyer: ‘De spleettrom’, Tijdschrift voor de Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, lxxix (1939), 415–46
T.C. Grame: ‘The Symbolism of the 'ud’, Asian Music, iii/1 (1972), 25–34
Gen'ichi Tsuge: ‘Musical Idols: Beasts in the Form of Instruments’, Festschrift for Dr. Chang Sa-hun: Articles on Asian Music (Seoul, 1976), 407–19
G. and L. Bauer: ‘Bernini's Organ-Case for S. Maria del Popolo’, Art Bulletin, lxii/1 (1980), 115–23
D.W. Penney: ‘Northern New Guinea Slit-Gong Sculpture’, Baessler-Archiv, xxviii (1980), 347–85
C. Rueger: Musikinstrument und Dekor (Gütersloh, 1982)
A. Pilipczuk: ‘Dekorative Verwertung alchimistischer und astrologischer Bildelemente auf Joachim Tielkes Gitarre von 1703’, Jb des Museums für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, ii (1983), 27–40
D.A. Olsen: ‘The Flutes of El Dorado: Musical Effigy Figurines of the Tairona’, Imago musicae, iii (1986), 79–102
E. Emsheimer: ‘On the Ergology and Symbolism of a Shaman drum of the Khakass’, Imago musicae, v (1988), 145–66
U. Groos: ‘Westfälische Orgelflügel als Bildträger’, Barocke Orgelkunst in Westfalen (Soest, 1995), 150–54 [exhibition catalogue]
E. Winternitz: ‘Quattrocento Science in the Gubbio Study’, Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, i/2 (1942), 104–16
A.P. de Mirimonde: ‘Les “Cabinets de musique”’, Jaarboek van het Kongelige Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerpen (1966), 141–80
M. Viale Ferrero: ‘Repliche a Torino di alcuni melodrammi veneziani e loro caratteristiche’, Venezia e il melodramma nel Seicento, ed. M.T. Muraro (Florence, 1976), 145–72
R. Bailey: ‘Visual and Musical Symbolism in German Romantic Opera’, IMSCR XII: Berkeley 1977, 436–44
A. Bourde: ‘Opera seria et scénographie: autour de deux toiles italiennes du XVIIIe siècle!’, L'opéra au XVIIIe siècle: Aix-en-Provence 1977, 229–53
F. Degrada: ‘Prolegomeni a una lettura della Sonnambula’, Il melodramma italiano dell'Ottocento: studi e ricerche per Massimo Mila, ed. G. Pestelli (Turin, 1977), 319–50
W. Liebenwein: Studiolo: die Entstehung eines Raumtyps und seine Entwicklung bis um 1600 (Berlin, 1977)
S. Leopold: ‘Zur Szenographie der Türkenoper’, Die stylistische Entwicklung der italienischen Musik zwischen 1770 und 1830: Rome 1978 [AnMc, no.21 (1982)], 370–79
M.T. Muraro and E. Povoledo: ‘Le Scene della Fida Ninfa: Maffei, Vivaldi e Francesco Bibbiena’, Vivaldi veneziano europeo: Venice 1978, 235–52
H.J. Raupp: ‘Musik im Atelier: Darstellungen musizierender Künstler in der niederländischen Malerei des 17. Jahrhunderts’, Oud Holland, xcii (1978), 106–29
M. Viale Ferrero: ‘Antonio e Pietro Ottoboni e alcuni melodrammi da loro identi o promossi a Roma’, Venezia e il melodramma nel Settecento, ed. M.T. Muraro (Florence, 1978), 271–94
D. Ming-Yüeh Liang: ‘The Artistic Symbolism of the Painted Faces in Chinese Opera: an Introduction’, World of Music, xxii/1 (1980), 72–85
A.M. Testaverde: ‘Feste Medicee: la visita, le nozze e il trionfo’, Città effimera a l'universo artificiale del giardino: la Firenze dei Medici e l'Italia del ’500, ed. M.F. dell'Arco (Rome, 1980), 69–100
M. Viale Ferrero: La scenografia dalle origini al 1936, Storia del Teatro Regio di Torino, ed. A. Basso, iii (Turin, 1980)
D. Heartz: ‘Vis comica: Goldoni, Galuppi and L'Arcadia in Brenta (Venice, 1749)’, Studi di musica veneta, vii (1981), 33–73
W. Eckhardt: ‘Gottfried Sempers Planungen für ein Richard Wagner-Festtheater in München’, Jb des Museums für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, ii (1983), 41–72
W.L. Barcham: ‘Costumes in the Frescoes of Tiepolo and Eighteenth-Century Opera’, Opera & Vivaldi, ed. M. Collins and E.K. Kirk (Austin, TX, 1984), 149–69
H. Himelfarb: ‘Lieux éminents du grand motet: décor symbolique et occupation de l'espace dans les deux dernières chapelles royales de Versailles (1682 et 1710)’, Le grand motet français: Paris 1984, 17–27
E. Povoledo: ‘Incontri romani: Franceso Bibiena e Giovanni Paolo Pannini (1719–1721)’, RIM, xx (1985), 296–327
P. Russo: ‘“L'isola di Alcina”: funzioni drammaturgiche del “divertissement” nella “tragédie lyrique” (1699–1735)’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 1–15
G.B. Salmen: ‘Musikerwohnungen des 19. Jahrhunderts als ikonographische Quelle’, Imago musicae, iv (1987), 151–8
M. Srocke: ‘Die Entwicklung der räumlichen Darstellung in der Inszenierungsgeschichte von Wagners Tristan und Isolde’, JbO, iii (1990), 43–68
N. Guidobaldi: La musica di Federico: immagini e suoni alla corte di Urbino (Florence, 1995)
H. Prunières: ‘Un portrait de Hobrecht et de Verdelot par Sebastiano del Piombo’, ReM, iii/6–8 (1921–2), 193–8
A. Cametti: Arcangelo Corelli: i suoi quadri, i suoi violini (Rome, 1927)
A. Della Corte: Satire e grotteschi di musiche e di musicisti d'ogni tempo (Turin, 1946)
E. Panofsky: ‘Who is Jan van Eyck's “Tymotheus”?’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, xii (1949), 80–90
W. Braun: ‘Arten des Komponistenporträts’, Festschrift für Walter Wiora, ed. L. Finscher and C.-H. Mahling (Kassel, 1967), 86–94
D. and E. Rosand: ‘“Barbara di Santa Sofia” and “Il Prete Genovese”: on the Identity of a Portrait by Bernardo Strozzi’, Art Bulletin, lxiii (1981), 249–58
H. Loos, ed.: Musik-Karikaturen (Dortmund, 1982)
P. Petrobelli: ‘Il musicista di teatro settecentesco nelle caricature di Pierleone Ghezzi’, Antonio Vivaldi: teatro musicale, cultura e società, ed. L. Bianconi and G. Morelli (Florence, 1982), 415–26
W. and G. Salmen: Musiker im Porträt (Munich, 1982–4)
T. Ford: ‘Andrea Sacchi's “Apollo Crowning the Singer Marc Antonio Pasqualini”’, EMc, xii (1984), 79–84
D. Heartz: ‘Portrait of a Court Musician: Gaetano Pugnani of Turin’, Imago musicae, i (1984), 103–19
A. Comini: The Changing Image of Beethoven: a Study in Myth Making (New York, 1987)
F.T. Camiz: ‘The Castrato Singer: from Informal to Formal Portraiture’, Artibus et Historiae, no.18 (1988), 171–86
N. Guidobaldi: Il ritratto di musicista e l'immagine della musica (diss., Bologna U. degli Studi, 1988)
T. Seebass: ‘Lady Music and her protégés: from Musical Allegory to Musicians’ Portraits’, MD, xlii (1988), 23–61
M. Wehnert: ‘Das Persönlichkeitsbild des Musikers als ikonographisches Problem: andeutungsweise dargestellt am Beispiel Carl Maria von Webers’, Musikalische Ikonographie: Hamburg 1991 [HJbMw, xii (1994)], 297–308
W. Kandinsky: Über das Geistige in der Kunst (Munich, 1911)
W. Kandinsky and F. Marc, eds.: Der Blaue Reiter (Munich, 1912; Eng. trans., rev., 1974, as The Blaue Reiter Almanac: New Documentary Edition)
O.C. Gangoly: Rāgas and Rāginīs (Bombay, 1934–5)
L. Parigi: Musiche in pittura (Signa, 1939)
P.O. Runge: Sein Leben in Selbstzeugnissen, Briefen und Berichten (Berlin, 1942)
T. Munro: The Arts and their Interrelations: a Survey of the Arts and an Outline of Comparative Aesthetics (New York, 1949)
A. Schaeffner: ‘Debussy et ses rapports avec la peinture’, Debussy et l'évolution de la musique au XXe siècle: Paris 1962, 151–66
E. and R.L. Waldschmidt: Musikinspirierte Miniaturen, i (Wiesbaden, 1966), ii (Berlin, 1975); Eng. trans. as Miniatures of Musical Inspiration in the Collection of the Berlin Museum of Indian Art (Berlin, 1967–75)
K. Ebeling: Rāgamālā Painting (Basle, 1973)
E. Lockspeiser: Music and Painting: a Study in Comparative Ideas from Turner to Schönberg (London, 1973)
R.M. Bisanz: ‘The Romantic Synthesis of the Arts: Nineteenth-Century German Theories on a Universal Art’, Konsthistorisk tidskrift, xliv/1–2 (1975), 38–46
A.L. Dahmen-Dallapiccola: Rāgamālā-Miniaturen von 1475–1700 (Wiesbaden, 1975)
G. Le Coat: ‘Anglo-Saxon Interlace Structure, Rhetoric and Musical Troping’, Gazette des beaux-arts, 6th ser., lxxxvii (1976), 1–6
A. Daniélou: ‘Symbolism in the Musical Theories of the Orient’, World of Music, xx/3 (1978), 24–37
T.J. Ellingson: The Mandala of Sound: Concepts and Sound Structures in Tibetan Ritual Music (diss., U. of Wisconsin, 1979)
F. Würtenberger: Malerei und Musik: die Geschichte des Verhaltens zweier Künste zueinander, dargestellt nach den Quellen im Zeitraum von Leonardo da Vinci bis John Cage (Frankfurt, 1979)
H.S. Powers: ‘Illustrated Inventories of Indian rāgamālā Painting’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, c (1980), 473–93
S. Misra: ‘Music Visualised Through Paintings’, Kalākshetra Quarterly, v/4 (1982–3), 17–22
A. Kagan: Paul Klee: Art and Music (Ithaca, NY, 1983)
N. Perloff: ‘Klee und Webern: Speculations on Modernist Theories of Composition’, MQ, lxix (1983), 180–208
P. Friedheim: ‘Wagner and the Aesthetics of the Scream’, 19CM, vii (1983–4), 63–70
H.-K. Metzger: ‘Schönberg und Kandinsky: ein Beitrag zum Verhältnis von Musik und Malerei’, Musik wozu? Literatur zu Noten (Frankfurt, 1984), 181–207
L.I. al Faruqi: ‘Structural Segments in the Islamic Arts: the Musical “Translation” of a Characteristic of the Literary and Visual Arts’, Asian Music, xvi/1 (1985), 59–82
K. von Maur, ed.: Vom Klang der Bilder: die Musik in der Kunst des 20. Jahrhunderts, Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, 1985 (Munich, 1985) [exhibition catalogue]
J. Schwarcz: ‘Die Darstellung des Geistes der Musik im Bilderbuch’, Librarium, xxix (1986), 190–202
E. Balas: ‘Bartók and Brancusi’, Imago musicae, vi (1989), 165–92
W. Seidel: ‘Die Symphonie von Moritz von Schwind’, Der Text des Bildes, ed. W. Kemp (Munich, 1989), 10–34
G. Rötter: ‘Die Gestaltung von Schallplattencovern’, Musik und Bildende Kunst: Augsburg 1988, 154–61
U. Bischoff, ed.: Kunst als Grenzbeschreitung: John Cage und die Moderne (Munich, 1991) [exhibition catalogue]
H.Q. Rinne: Concepts of Time and Space in Selected Works of Jazz Improvisation and Painting (diss., Ohio U., 1991)
U. Kersten: Max Klinger und die Musik (Frankfurt, 1993)
E. Schmierer and others, eds.: Töne – Farben – Formen: über Musik und die bildenden Künste, Festschrift Elmar Budde (Laaber, 1995)
T. Steiert: Das Kunstwerk in seinem Verhältnis zu den Künsten: Beziehungen zwischen Musik und Malerei (Frankfurt, 1995)
Canto d'Amore Klassizistische Moderne in Musik und bildender Kunst 1914–1935, Kunstmuseum Basle, 1996 (Basle, 1996) [exhibition catalogue]
