Country in South America.
GERARD BÉHAGUE (I), JOHN M. SCHECHTER (II)
There is substantial documentary evidence of relatively important musical activity in colonial Ecuador, but no polyphonic work by musicians active in Quito, Cuenca and Guayaquil has yet been found. In view of the splendid development of colonial architecture, painting and sculpture related to the church, it is likely that there were similar accomplishments in music.
The transplanting of European music to Ecuador began with the establishment in Quito in 1535 of a Flemish Franciscan order (by the monks Josse de Rycke of Mechelen and Pierre Gosseal of Leuven) in which the teaching of music was important. Amerindians were taught plainchant, mensural notation and performance on the main families of European instruments, particularly at their Colegio de S Andrés (founded 1555), where the standard was such that by 1570 even Francisco Guerrero’s difficult four- and five-part motets could be performed. The mestizo Diego Lobato (c1538–c1610), was appointed maestro de capilla at the cathedral in 1574; documentary evidence suggests that he composed motetes and chanzonetas, but none has been found. Gutierre Fernández Hidalgo (c1547–1623), considered the paramount South American Renaissance composer, came from Bogotá to succeed Lobato as maestro de capilla in 1588, but his stay in Quito was too short to be of lasting significance in the cathedral’s musical life. In 1682 the chapter appointed another distinguished composer, Manuel Blasco, from Bogotá; his works (now in the Bogotá Cathedral archive) include an eight-part Confitebor–Laudate Dominum–Magnificat, a 12-part Dixit Dominus, a 12-part Laudate Dominum (1683), a 12-part Magnificat and an Officium defunctorum (1681), all incomplete; two polyphonic villancicos (one from 1686), and Versos al organo, con duo para chirimias (1684). Blasco left his post at the cathedral in 1696 and was succeeded by José Ortuño de Larrea (d 1722).
There is little information about 18th-century church music in Ecuador; the city of Guayaquil seems to have superseded Quito, but no primary source remains.
After independence (1822) attempts to establish a professional musical life resulted in the foundation of a school of music in Quito, which was for a time under the direction of Agustín Baldeón (d 1847), a composer of symphonies and other orchestral pieces. This music school became the Sociedad Filarmónica de S Cecilia which lasted until 1858. Only in 1870, under the stimulus of the educational policy of the García Moreno regime, was the Conservatorio Nacional de Música founded and put under the direction of Antonio Neumann (1818–71), of German descent, the author of the national anthem and founder of the Philharmonic Society in Guayaquil. The Italian Domenico Brescia came from Santiago, Chile, to direct the conservatory in Quito, and during his years there (1903–11) established music education in Ecuador on a sounder base than had previously been possible. He was an early advocate of musical nationalism in Ecuador, with such works as Sinfonia ecuatoriana and Ocho variaciones (based on indigenous sacred songs). Several of his students adopted the nationalist style. Of these, Segundo Luis Moreno (1882–1972) wrote many works with indigenous elements, and Luis Humberto Salgado (1903–77) was the leading figure of his generation. His symphonic suite Atahualpa (1933), his Suite coreográfica (1946), the ballets El amaño (1947) and El Dios Tumbal (1952) and other works show strong nationalist feeling. Salgado also wrote two operas, Cumandá (1940, rev. 1954) and Eunice (1956–7), that were never produced. Salgado ws not an exclusively nationalist composer, as the varied style of his eight symphonies shows. In his later years, he even relied on atonality and tried his hand at 12-note composition.
Pedro Pablo Traversari (1874–1956), a prolific composer and musicologist, combined a neo-Romantic style with some native characteristics. He wrote 22 dances in the style of the highlands, hymns (including the Pentatonic Hymn of the Indian Race), the tone poem Glorias andinas, and melodramas such as Cumandá, La profecía de Huiracocha, Los hijos del sol, all based on native legends. His teaching in the chief institutions of Ecuador, including the Central University, was influential. His important collection of native and foreign instruments is the basis of the instrument collection at the Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana in Quito.
Spanish Franciscan monks have also contributed greatly to 20th-century Ecuadorian music. Francisco María Alberdi (1878–1934) and Agustín de Azkúnaga (1885–1957) have produced much church music, as well as secular music in native styles. Later Manuel J. Mola Mateau (1918–91), another Franciscan composer, directed the conservatory in Quito, held the position of cathedral organist and founded a school of church music.
More advanced techniques of composition appeared in some of the works of Gerard Guevara (b 1930), and especially of Mesías Maiguashca (b 1938), a student of Ginastera at the Di Tella Institute, Buenos Aires, who settled in Cologne, Germany and cultivated atonality and electronic and computer music media. Notable composers of the following generations include Milton Estévez (b 1947), Arturo Rodas (b 1951), Diego Luzuriaga (b 1955), the last two residents of the UK and the USA, respectively.
See also Quito.
For bibliography see end of §II.
Ecuadorian traditional music has a distinct regional character, yet with clear instances of musical borrowing. Within a single region there are related musical genres that, though given different names by different ethnic groups, are clearly musical cousins. Each of the three major cultural-ecological zones may be defined by certain musical genres and dances, by characteristic musical instruments and by distinctive music rituals and festivals. At the same time, there are certain Roman Catholic festivals that are observed not only in different zones of Ecuador but in many other parts of predominantly Roman Catholic Latin America.
Ecuador, §II: Traditional music
The highland inhabitants of the volcanic regions include Quechua-speaking Amerindians, Spanish-speaking mestizos and, in the Chota Valley, Spanish-speaking Afro-Ecuadorians. Certain musical genres are strongly regional: the dance-song sanjuanito, for example, is associated with Imbabura province, northern highland Ecuador, where it may be heard in Afro-Ecuadorian households in the Chota Valley, as well as in Iberian-Ecuadorian and Quechua homes. Other genres are more clearly products of a particular culture; examples include the bomba dance-song of the Chota Afro-Ecuadorians, or the dance-form pareja and instrumental vacación of the Otavalo Valley Quechua.
The contemporary Quechua sanjuán is the prominent vehicle for the musical and textual creativity of Otavalo Quechua. Sanjuanes exist in the hundreds; often evincing a condensed ballad character, they may be autobiographical, history-recounting or enumerative. Examples recorded by the author in 1979–80 and 1990 enact musical vengeance on a wife-beating guitarist-rival of the composer, allude to lamenting at the death of the last Ecuadorian Inca, Atahualpa, and recount in consummate detail the features of a critical member of the local fauna, the sheep.
The sanjuán, performed in both ritual and non-ritual contexts, is in complex litany form where, notably in performances involving the Imbabura diatonic harp, amidst the regular repetition of a single, primary motif, one new break or secondary motif may be inserted. Quechua sanjuán harmony (when played on harp or guitar, for example) is typically bimodal, exploiting the ambiguity between the minor and its relative major mode. The majority of Imbabura province Quechua sanjuanes are anhemitonic pentatonic; some may be tetratonic, a few hexatonic.
Mestizos of the highlands compose sanjuanitos, which, though in a similar character and tempo to the Quechua sanjuán, manifest certain differences. Dating back at least 70 years, mestizo sanjuanitos are in 2/4 metre and often display the phrase structure AABB(C), where A and B are always of the same length (either four or eight beats) and alternate regularly, unlike Quechua sanjuán, where the primary motif dominates. A number of different ensembles may be employed to perform both sanjuán and sanjuanito: solo bandolín, harp or quena or larger instrumental ensembles may be used; or solo or multiple voices either unaccompanied, or accompanied by solo harp or one or two guitars.
A highland example of the ‘musical cousin’ phenomenon alluded to above is the relationship between the mestizo albazo, Chota Afro-Ecuadorian bomba and Quechua pareja. Similarities of tempo, metre, rhythm and lively character link these three regional genres, despite their differing labels (Moreno, 1930). Perhaps one of the most cherished of highland genres, the sesquialtera-metric albazo (sometimes referred to as chilena, cachullapi or saltashka) carries some of the same symbolic weight for highland Ecuador, particularly for the Mestizos, as does the bambuco for highland Colombia, or the cueca for Chile. The highly evocative albazos extol praise for one's region (Aires de mi tierra [Cotacachi, Imbabura], Qué lindo es mi Quito, El Tungurahua Querido) or for a beloved musical instrument (Arpita de mis canciones). Also sharing in the character of regional praise is the mestizo duple-metric pasacalle dance-song form, akin to the Spanish pasodoble; examples include Ambato, tierra de flores (‘Ambato, Land of Flowers’) and Balcón Quiteño (‘Quito balcony’).
The bomba of the Chota Valley is the label for both a highland Afro-Ecuadorian music of Chota and a principal membranophone of the same region; the latter was described as early as the 1860s by Hassaurek. The dance-song bomba emerged from the culture of the sugar mill, a colonial-era institution introduced to Chota by the Jesuits; the extant bomba Mete caña al trapiche refers to this way of life. In 1980 Coba Andrade published texts for 56 Chota bombas. Among the finest interpreters of the bomba and other Chota Valley musics are the brothers Eleuterio, Fabián and Germán Congo, together with their colleague, Milton Tadeo. Recordings of bombas have appeared both in primary-source regional LPs and in anthologies or derivatives (Peñín, Velasquez and Coba Andrade, 1990; Schechter: ‘Tradition and Dynamism’, 1996). The allegro bomba may evince call-and-response texture, repetitive melody, simple duple or sesquialtera metre, bimodal harmony (relative minor/major) and rigorous syncopation; where traditional bombas addressed themes of love or land, contemporary bombas are concerned with political issues, such as the growing disillusionment with governments’ unfulfilled promises. Just as sanjuán may be considered emblematic of northern highland Quechua, so bomba carries the same deeply ingrained, symbolic weight for Afro-Ecuadorians of Chota (Schechter: ‘Los Hermanos Congo’, 1994). The pareja is slightly faster than the sanjuán and in simple duple or compound duple metre. Characterized more by its function than by particular titles, pareja is associated with children's wakes and Quechua newly-weds' dancing, particularly at dawn (Schechter, 1982).
The mestizo dance-song form tonada is waltz-like, in a moderate triple metre and manifests a characteristic Ecuadorian minor- relative major bimodality, with a cadence in the minor dominant. Tonadas may particularly be heard performed by ensembles of the central and southern highlands; these ensembles might incorporate harp, violins, bandolín, guitar and flute.
The mestizo highland pasillo, with its enormous repertory, is a particularly popular genre, attracting amateur and professional composers; pasillo recordings probably sell in greater volume than most, if not all, other types of Ecuadorian popular music. 798 pasillos have been identified by poet or composer (Carrión, 1975). Godoy Aguirre's anthology contains composers' scores (with texts underlaid or set apart from score) for about 40 pasillos, with texts alone for dozens more.
The unmistakable quality of the deliberate, triple-metre character of the pasillo, and its elegance of expression, its inevitable reference to a (sometimes denied) love of the past, or to some other sadness of the past have been noted (by the central highland harpist César Muquinche, interview with the author). Ecuadorian pasillos may reveal an adoration or idealization of female beauty, set in terms of an intense nostalgia or melancholy often laced with autobiographical segments. Pride in local geography, seen already in albazo and pasacalle, is also a feature of many pasillos, such as Oh, mi Cuenca, Riobamba and Quiteñita. Theoretical analysis of the pasillo addresses the parameters of rhythm, metre (always 3/4), mode (usually minor) and structure (typically bipartite); the Ecuadorian pasillo can be traced back to the 19th-century Austrian waltz, with 20th-century descendants, including not only the Ecuadorian pasillo but also the vals criollo of Venezuela, the pasillo of Colombia and the vals peruano of Peru.
The yaraví, an elegiac vocal form of the northern and southern Andes, dates back to the colonial period and displays moderately slow tempo, triple or multi-metres, binary or rounded binary form and a regular phrase structure. Ecuadorian yaravís date back more than 100 years, to the collection published by Marcos Jiménez de la Espada in 1884. The dance form danzante is in an allegro or allegretto 6/8 metre, marked by a distinctive inverted-trochaic quaver-crotchet rhythm. Melodic contour is typically disjunct and angular, often with a distinctive descending leap of a 6th at the ends of certain phrases. A large collection of Ecuadorian coplas, four-line verses with ABCB rhyme, has been assembled on a historical basis, organized by thematic category (Carvalho-Neto, 1975).
Ecuadorian organology benefited from the publication of Coba Andrade's two-volume study of Ecuadorian musical instruments, encompassing idiophones (1981) and membranophones, chordophones and aerophones (1992). The history, modern traditions, configurations and performing practices of the harp, both in Ecuador and in Latin America as a whole have also been the subject of investigation (Schechter, 1992). A representative sampling of a broad range of sierra musical instruments would include diatonic harp, bandolín (mandolin), rondador (panpipe), tunda (transverse flute), pingullo (duct flute) and bombo (double headed drum).
Indigenous harpists proliferated in 18th-century northern highland Ecuador (Recio, 1773, p.426); harps were also used in processional performance at the festival of St John, in June 1863, near Otavalo (Hassaurek, 1867). Turn-of-the-century Ecuadorian harps are depicted in the paintings Velorio de indios, Paisaje and Ciego Basilio by Joaquín Pinto (1842–1906) of the Quito School (Schechter, 1992; Samaniego Salazar, 1977: no.40). Today Ecuador has at least two major harp traditions, with hybrid forms of the instrument. In Imbabura province, in the northern sierra, the harp played by Quechua male musicians is made of cedar, with three soundbox holes, arched soundbox, straight forepillar and uncarved neck; it is used at Quechua weddings and children’s wakes, largely as a solo instrument, to perform sanjuanes, parejas and vacación (see (iii)). One of the finest of Imbabura province Quechua harpists is Elías Imbaquingo; fig.1 shows him performing with his father at a Quechua wedding celebration in October 1990.
In Tungurahua province, central sierra, the instrument is larger, made of cedar, walnut and other woods, with three soundbox holes, straight forepillar and an elaborately carved neck. Performed either solo or in an ensemble (as described in (i) for the performance of tonadas), it is used at festive events to play albazos, pasacalles, pasillos and other genres. Both highland harp traditions employ a second musician, the golpeador, who beats the rhythm on the soundbox (see ex.1). As played by Quechua musicians of Imbabura, the bandolín is a type of mandolin with flat back and five courses of triple strings (fig.2). The guitar, of course, is ubiquitous in both mestizo and, increasingly, Quechua cultures.
The rondador is a traditional panpipe of Ecuador, distinguished from the double-rank, hocketing panpipes of the southern Andes of Peru and Bolivia by its single rank and the absence of hocketing in its performing practice. Made of cane, condor or vulture feathers, highland Ecuadorian rondadors may have from eight to 43 tubes. Frequently the chosen instrument of blind and/or mendicant musicians, and played by night-time neighbourhood watchmen at the turn of the 20th century (Samaniego Salazar, 1977), the rondador is notable for its staggered tube-arrangement (not staircase-fashion) and for players' propensity to sound two adjacent tubes simultaneously, at the ends of phrases.
The tunda is a transverse flute of the highlands, taking its name from the cane of its manufacture. Quechua of Imbabura and Pichincha provinces play the instrument during the June festivities for St John and Sts Peter and Paul. The pingullo is an end-blown duct flute existing both in the northern and southern Andes. Individual musicians play the three holed pingullo with large bombo drum in pipe and tabor fashion at annual Corpus Christi and harvest festivals of central highland Tungurahua and Cotopaxi provinces (Coba Andrade, 1992, pp.606–8; Schechter: ‘Corpus Christi’, 1994). The kena notched flute, prominent in the southern Andes, can also be found in highland Quechua ensembles such as Conjunto Ilumán, directed by guitarist-singer Segundo Galo Maigua. Today, ensembles of Ecuadorian-Andean (as well as Peruvian- and Bolivian-Andean) musicians are seen and heard in urban centres throughout the world.
The double-headed bombo drum, found widely in South America, appears in both the pipe and tabor context at Corpus Christi and in hundreds of other local Quechua ensembles. The bombos of the central-highland Salasaca are known for having one head painted with a design which is sometimes reflective of the elaborate dress of the danzantes (costumed indigenous dancers) of this region. Quechua-speaking Salasaca also play a cherry-leaf idiophone (hoja de capulí); this tradition, with musical transcriptions, analysis and discussion of performance practice, is described in Casagrande and Stigberg.
In the Ecuadorian highlands, these include the child's wake (known among northern Quechua as wawa velorio), Holy Week and Corpus Christi, among others. Celebrated in Roman Catholic Latin America from the 18th century, an infant's wake is also a festive rite in highland Ecuador. As in other countries, the Quechua of the northern Ecuadorian highlands mark the passage of the deceased infant into the realm of the angels with local music, in this case that of the harp (with golpeador), playing sanjuanes, parejas (ex.1) and vacación. Vacación is a percussive, ametrical music without sung text, played on the harp without golpeador or dancing; its performance is reserved for the opening of the wake and for moments when the child is moved from its open coffin (Schechter, 1983, p.23; transcription, pp.56–7).
Holy Week processions in Ecuador date back to the 16th century; they have been documented in varying detail for 19th- and 20th-century Quito and various other localities within the country (Carvalho Neto: Diccionario, 1964). The Quechua of Cotacachi, Imbabura, are known for their liturgical chants, intoned in the course of Holy Week processions. This writer documented two types of musical performance in the Cotacachi Holy Week processions of March–April 1980: on the one hand duos or trios of cane transverse flutes and on the other the responsorial chanting of the Passion(s) in Quechua, with the solo part executed by a specially trained local male Quechua catequista (prayer-specialist) and the choral response provided by local Quechua females (ex.2). Lead and choral singers performed this essentially arhythmic, ametrical music with fixed text, without vibrato and with the same rhythmic freedom of phrase with which Gregorian chant is performed in cathedral. The clear neumatic style of this chant (akin to that of the Marian antiphons), its ambitus, melodic style and character of its melodic contour are decidedly closer to Gregorian chant than to local Quechua musics such as sanjuán or pareja, which are highly rhythmic, metrically orientated, and often involve the improvisation of texts. It would appear that the Cotacachi Quechua Passion chant is composed by clergy and set intentionally in pentatonic modes to conform with the prevailing gamut of the local melos.
The Ecuadorian celebration of Corpus Christi and its octave juxtaposes European and native Andean elements. The festival's Roman Catholic nature, its elaborate processional aspect and the inclusion of harp, pipe and tabor and outdoor theatre at various places and times since the late 18th century, point to its European heritage. The celebration's local Andean roots are apparent in its orientation to the solstice period, its prominent display of the fruits of the harvest, the elaborate dress of the Corpus danzantes and the instrumentation and character of the pipe and tabor (pingullo and bombo) music accompanying them.
Ecuador, §II: Traditional music
Shuar (or Jívaro, Jíbaro) shamanic chant, social dance singing, love songs, war songs, lullabies and planting ceremony chants have frequently revealed a pitch gamut of a tritone or sometimes a major triad. Other Shuar musical aspects include emphasis of the tonic through repetition, the use of dotted rhythmic figures, frequent dual metrical patterns and song formation through variation of short motifs of clearly circumscribed tonal material, often observing an incomplete-repetition form. The 1990 recording Música etnográfica y folklórica del Ecuador includes Tono de Uwishin performed by a shaman on the tumank, a musical bow played with the fingernail; a detailed discussion of the tumank also appears in Coba Andrade's 1978 essay. Young Shuar men perform love songs on this instrument at sunset, with the desire that their beloved women think of them, despite the distance that separates them. Shuar women sing anents (love songs) in their homes, accompanied by men playing the pinkui, a transverse flute with one mouth-hole and two finger-holes, or puem, similar to the pinkui, but with five finger-holes.
At the time of manioc planting Shuar women sing chants to the souls of the manioc plants and subsequently to the earth mother, Nungüi. Shuar women also sing arrullos (lullabies), using a trilled-lip vocal technique and based on the major triad (a recorded example is featured in Peñín, Velasquez and Coba Andrade, 1990). These lullabies may often be sung not by the mother but by a female child, imploring the mother to return from the garden to care for the baby (Harner, 1973, pp.85–6). At Shuar festive events, pairs of men and women sing contrapuntal songs while dancing (hansematä); these courting songs, sometimes improvised on individual texts, have a flirtatious and ironic content (ibid., 108–9). The Shuar keer, or kitiar, a two-string violin, is used for shamanic chanting as well as for accompanying love songs. A highly rhythmic example from Harner's 1972 Folkways recording displays a tonic drone and prominent 2nd overtone (the 12th above).
The Shuar also play a large wooden slit-drum, the túntui, or túnduy. This instrument sends signals of war, death or other particular events; its penetrating sound (which can be perceived over a five-kilometre radius) is taboo for women.
Recordings made among the Shuar from 1955 to 1958 and transcriptions published in 1935 show a major-triad contour in women's agriculture-related songs (List, 1965), suggesting that in general, Shuar vocal music seems to exhibit both triadic and anhemitonic pentatonic structures. An analysis of Shuar melodies (Muriel, 1976) using melodies collected by the Ecuadorian missionary priest Raimundo M. Monteros (published in 1942) and melodies recorded by Philippe Luzuy for the Musée de l'Homme, Paris, in 1958, also identified major-triadic structure. Among the Shuar in the vicinity of the evangelical mission at Macuma, in Morona-Santiago province, nampesma appears to be the broadest category of song, excluding only shamanic curing chants and some sacred feast chants (Belzner, 1981). The Macuma Shuar sing three types of nampesma: love songs, gardening songs and cantos populares (social or public songs). The Macuma missionaries have sought to develop an indigenous hymnody: a body of traditional songs with Shuar texts which express Christian concepts.
In addition to Shuar culture, lowland Quechua music culture has also been recorded and studied. Quechua women's songs of this region exhibit themes of both physical abuse and self-assertiveness (Harrison, 1989). Lowland Quechua women's llakichina (Quechua: ‘to make [one] sad’) songs are performed in order to enchant as well as to induce love or nostalgia. Canelos Quechua women, while decorating pottery, will ‘think-sing’ songs that belong to the special named souls or spirits, whose substance the women are seeking to impart through their designs (Whitten, 1976).
Soul Vine Shaman is a vivid in situ recording made in the Napo region of eastern Ecuador in November 1976; the music is performed by a Napo Quechua shaman (yachaj) in his home, while attending to an ill woman. The LP includes multiple excerpts of solo violin, bird-bone flute, leaf-bundle shaking plus whistling and male (shaman) song with leaf-bundle self-accompaniment. The violin examples are pentatonic, though emphasizing pitches of the triad; the bird-bone flute extracts are arhythmic and based around a minor triad, while the whistling and leaf-bundle shaking examples are pentatonic. It would appear that, in addition to similar underlying aetiological beliefs and behavioural aspects of the shamanic curing complex, lowland Quechua and Shuar peoples share certain music-stylistic aspects. These include use of tritonic and pentatonic tonal structures for different musics in their cultures, or, as in certain Shuar shamanic song, even within the same performance medium in a single context; syllabic settings for shamanistic song; heavy emphasis on the final, which is often approached via the third scale degree, and use of dotted rhythms.
The recording Lowland Tribes of Ecuador contains one example from the small Waorani population of the oriente, as well as excerpts from the Amerindian Cofán, Siona and Secoya peoples inhabiting the region near the border with Colombia.
Ecuador, §II: Traditional music
Analysing the music culture of Afro-Americans of the Pacific littoral of Esmeraldas, Ecuador, as well as coastal sectors of Nariño, Cauca and Valle departments, Colombia, Whitten (1968) isolates five musical contexts: currulao (marimba dance), chigualo (child's wake), alavado and novenario (wake and post-burial rituals for a deceased adult), the arrullo for a saint and the dance hall.
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P. de Carvalho-Neto: ‘Cancionero general de coplas ecuatorianas: el aporte del Instituto Ecuatoriano de Folklore desde 1962 hasta 1971’, Journal of Latin American Lore, i (1975), 35–77
I. Aretz and others, eds.: Cuatro mil años de música en el Ecuador [catalogue of an exhibition organized by INIDEF] (Caracas, 1976)
C. Coba: ‘Nuevos planteamientos a la etnomúsica y al folklore’, Sarance, no.3 (1976), 50–62
J.A. Guerrer: La música ecuatoriana desde su origen hasta 1875 (Quito, 1976/R) [see also review, Inter-American Music Review, xiii/1 (1992), 109–11]
F. Samaniego Salazar, ed.: Ecuador pintoresco: acuarelas de Joaquín Pinto (Barcelona, 1977)
A. Cáceres: ‘Preliminary Comments on the Marimba in the Americas’, Discourse in Ethnomusicology: Essays in Honor of George List, ed. C. Card and others (Bloomington, IN, 1978), 225–50
M. Mecías Carrera C.: Folklore autóctono Zambiceño (n.p., 1978)
R. Rephann: A Catalogue of the Pedro Traversari Collection of Musical Instruments (Washington DC, 1978)
D. Luzuriaga: ‘Nomina de las principales formas rítmicas o “ritmos” del Ecuador’, Taller de música, J.A.D.A.P. (?Quito, [before 1979])
C.A. Coba Andrade: ‘Instrumentos musicales ecuatorianos’, Sarance, no.7 (1979), 70–95
C.A. Coba Andrade: Literatura popular afroecuatoriana (Otavalo, 1980)
C.A. Coba Andrade: Instrumentos musicales populares registrados en el Ecuador, i (Otavalo, 1981); ii (Quito, 1992)
J.M. Schechter: ‘Corona y baile: Music in the Child's Wake of Ecuador and Hispanic South America, Past and Present’, LAMR, iv (1983), 1–80
C. Coba Andrade: Danzas y bailes en el Ecuador (Quito, 1985, 2/1986)
C.A. Coba Andrade: ‘Danzas y bailes en el Ecuador’, LAMR, vi (1985), 166–200
C. Sigmund: ‘Questions of Acculturation and Accuracy: Ecuadorian Music after Sixty Years’, Sacra/Profana: Studies in Sacred and Secular Music for Johannes Riedel, ed. A. Ekdahl Davidson and C. Davidson (Minneapolis, 1985), 137–50
L. Benítez and A. Garcés: Culturas ecuatorianas: ayer y hoy (Quito, 1986, 4/1990)
M. Godoy Aguirre: Florilegio de la música ecuatoriana, i: La música popular en el Ecuador (Guayaquil, c1988)
C.A. Coba Andrade: ‘Visión histórica de la música en el Ecuador’, Ecuador indígena: aspectos históricos y actuales de la cultura andina (Otavalo, 1989), 33–62
P. Banning: ‘El sanjuanito o sanjuán en Otavalo’, Sarance, no.15 (1991), 195–217
J.M. Schechter: The Indispensable Harp: Historical Development, Modern Roles, Configurations and Performance Practices in Ecuador and Latin America (Kent, OH, 1992)
P. Guerrero Gutierrez: Músicos del Ecuador: diccionario biográfico (Quito, 1995)
J.M. Schechter: ‘Latin America: Ecuador’, Worlds of Music: an Introduction to the Music of the World's Peoples, ed. J.T. Titon (New York, 3/1996), 428–94
M. Jiménez de la Espada: ‘Colección de cantos y bailes indios de yaravíes quiteños’, Congreso internacional de Americanistas [Madrid 1881], i (Madrid, 1882), pp.i–lxxxii
R. and M. d'Harcourt: ‘La musique dans la sierra andine de La Paz à Quito’ Journal de la Société des américanistes, new ser., xii (1920), 21–55
S.L. Moreno: La música en la provincia de Imbabura (Quito, 1923)
E.C. Parsons: Peguche, Canton of Otavalo, Province of Imbabura, Ecuador: a Study of Andean Indians (Chicago, 1945)
L. Rodríguez Sandoval: Vida económico-social del indio libre de la sierra ecuatoriana (Washington DC, 1949)
P. Peñaherrera de Costales and A. Costales Samaniego: Los Salasacas: investigación y elaboración, Llacta, viii (Quito, 1959)
A. Morlas Gutiérrez: Florilegio del pasillo ecuatoriano (Quito, 1961)
P. Peñaherrera de Costales, A. Costales Samaniego and F.J. Bucheli: Tungurahua, Llacta, xiii (Quito, 1961)
A. Albuja Galindo: Estudio monográfico del cantón Cotacachi (Quito, 1962)
R. Stevenson: ‘Música en Quito’, Revista musical chilena, nos.81–2 (1962), 172–94
R. Stevenson: ‘Music in Quito: Four Centuries’, Hispanic American Historical Review, xliii (1963), 247–66
S.L. Moreno: Cotacachi y su comarca (Quito, 1966)
I.V. Carrión: Antología del pasillo ecuatoriano (Cuenca, Ecuador, 1975)
F. Aguiló: El hombre del Chimborazo y su mundo interior (Cuenca, Ecuador, 1978)
A. Albuja Galindo: Imbabura en la cultura nacional: un homenaje a Ibarra y a la provincia (Ibarra, 1979)
R.L. Harrison Macdonald: Andean Indigenous Expression: a Textual and Cultural Study of Hispanic-American and Quichua Poetry in Ecuador (diss., U. of Illinois, 1979)
R. Stutzman: ‘La gente Morena de Ibarra y la sierra septentrional’, Sarance, no.7 (1979), 96–110
L. Walter: ‘Social Strategies and the Fiesta Complex in an Otavaleño Community’, American Ethnologist, viii (1981), 172–85
J.M. Schechter: Music in a Northern Ecuadorian Highland Locus: Diatonic Harp, Genres, Harpists and their Ritual Junction in the Quechua Child's Wake (diss., U. of Texas, 1982)
J. Riedel: ‘The Ecuadorean pasillo: is it música popular, música nacional or música folklórica?’, Popular Music Perspectives II: Reggio nell'Emilia, 1983, 252–77; repr. in LAMR, vii (1986), 1–25
J.M. Schechter: ‘The Diatonic Harp in Ecuador: Historical Background and Modern Traditions’, JAMIS, x (1984), 97–118; xi (1985), 123–73
S. Obando A.: Tradiciones de Imbabura (Quito, 1985, 3/1988)
J.B. Casagrande and D.K. Stigberg: ‘Leaf-Music among the Salasaca of Highland Ecuador’, Explorations in Ethnomusicology: Essays in Honor of David P. McAllester, ed. C.J. Frisbie (Detroit, 1986), 161–78
J.M. Lipski: ‘The Chota Valley: Afro-Hispanic Language in Highland Ecuado’, Latin American Research Review, xxii/1 (1987), 155–70
J.M. Schechter: ‘Quechua sanjuán in Northern Highland Ecuador: Harp Music as Structural Metaphor on Purina’, Journal of Latin American Lore, xiii (1987), 27–46
P. Banning: El sanjuanito o sanjuán en Otavalo: un estudio comparativo de la música indígena y la música latinoamericana en Ecuador (thesis, U. of Amsterdam, 1988)
R. Harrison: Signs, Songs and Memory in the Andes: Translating Quechua Language and Culture (Austin, 1989)
J. Bueno: ‘La bomba en la cuenca del Chota-Mira: sincretismo o nueva realidad’, Sarance, no.15 (1991), 171–93
J.M. Schechter: ‘Los Hermanos Congo y Milton Tadeo Ten Years Later: Evolution of an African-Ecuadorian Tradition of the Valle del Chota, Highland Ecuador’, Music and Black Ethnicity: the Caribbean and South America: Miami, 1992, 285–305
J.M. Schechter: ‘Corpus Christi and its Octave in Andean Ecuador: Procession and Music, “Castles” and “Bulls”’, Music-Cultures in Contact: Convergences and Collisions, ed. M.J. Kartomi and S. Blum (Sydney, 1994), 59–72
J.M. Schechter: ‘Divergent Perspectives on the velorio del angelito: Ritual Imagery, Artistic Condemnation and Ethnographic Value’, Journal of Ritual Studies, viii/2 (1994), 43–84
J.M. Schechter: ‘Tradition and Dynamism in Ecuadorian Andean Quichua sanjuán: Macrocosm in Formulaic Expression, Microcosm in Ritual Absorption’, Cosmología y música en los Andes: Berlin 1992, ed. M.P. Baumann (Frankfurt, 1996), 247–67
R. Karsten: The Head-Hunters of Western Amazonas: Life and Culture of the Jibaro Indians of Eastern Ecuador and Peru (Helsinki, 1935)
R. Monteros: Música autóctona del oriente ecuatoriano (Quito, 1942)
G. List: ‘Music in the Culture of the Jibaro Indians of the Ecuadorian Montaña’, Inter-American Music Bulletin, no.40–41 (1964), 1–17; also in Conferencia interamericana de etnomusicologiá I: Cartagena, Colombia 1963, 131–52
I. Muriel: Beitrag zur Musikkultur der Jibaro-Indianer in Ekuador (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1970)
M.J. Harner: The Jívaro: People of the Sacred Waterfalls (Garden City, NY, 1973)
I. Muriel: ‘Contribución a la cultura musical de los Jívaros del Ecuador’, Folklore americano, no.25 (1976), 141–57
N.E. Whitten jr: Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana, IL, 1976)
C.A. Coba Andrade: ‘Estudio sobre el tumank o tsayantur, arco musical del Ecuador’, Folklore americano, no.25 (1978), 79–100
W. Belzner: ‘Music, Modernization and Westernization among the Macuma Shuar’, Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. N.E. Whitten jr (Urbana, IL, 1981), 731–48
B. Seitz: ‘Quichua Songs to Sadden the Heart: Music in a Communication Event’, LAMR, ii (1981), 223–51
J. Cornejo: Chigualito-Chigualó: biografía completo del villancio ecuatoriano (Guayaquil, 1959)
N.E. Whitten jr: Class, Kinship and Power in an Ecuadorian Town: the Negroes of San Lorenzo (Stanford, CA, 1965)
N.E. Whitten jr and C. Aurelio Fuentes: “‘Baile marimba” Negro Folk Music in Northwest Ecuador’, Journal of the Folklore Institute, iii (1966), 168–91
N.E. Whitten jr: ‘Personal Networks and Musical Contexts in the Pacific Lowlands of Colombia and Ecuador’, Man, new ser., iii (1968), 50–63; repr. in Afro-American Anthropology, ed. N.E. Whitten jr and J.F. Szwed (New York, 1970), 203–17
N.E. Whitten jr: ‘Ritual Enactment of Sex Roles in the Pacific Lowlands of Ecuador-Colombia’, Ethnology, xiii/2 (1974), 129–43
T. White: ‘The Marimba from Esmeraldas, Ecuador’, Percussionist, xvi (1978), 1–8
Arpegios del Alma: Luís Aníbal Granja y su conjunto de arpa y guitarra, formado por tres notables ejecutantes – Gonzalo Castro, Bolívar Ortiz y Segundo Guaña, Discos Granja 351-0014 (1963)
Afro-Hispanic Music from Western Colombia and Ecuador, coll. N.E. Whitten jr, Folkways F-4376 (1967)
Music of the Jívaro of Ecuador, coll. M.J. Harner, rec. 1956–7, Folkways F-4386 (1972)
Material on Chachi culture, coll. M. Plaza de Tambaco, rec. 1975, Instituto Otavaleño de Antropología IOA.Ecu. ProV.Esmeraldas, 102P-64M [archive collection]
El mundo musical de la Salasacas: Grupo Folklórico Salasaca, IFESA ORION LP6222
Folklore de mi tierra: Conjunto Indígena ‘Peguche’, IFESA ORION 330-0063 (1977)
Marimba Cayapas: típica marimba esmeraldeña, ONIX-Fediscos LP-50031 (1979)
Soul Vine Shaman, coll. N. Crawford, Neelon Crawford NC-S-7601 (1979) [incl. notes by N.E. Whitten jr and others]
Ecuador: Quechua Collection, coll. J.M. Schechter, rec. 1979–80, Library of Congress AFS 24, 124–24, 203 [archive collection]
Lowland Tribes of Ecuador, coll. D.B. Stiffler, Folkways F-4375 (1986)
Clásicas de la canción ecuatoriana, perf. Alfredo Rolando Ortiz, Famoso 22201023 (1989)
Los grandes de la bomba: con Fabián Congo y Milton Tadeo, Novedades LP323102 (1989)
Música etnográfica y folklórica del Ecuador: culturas – Shuar, Chachi, Quichua, Afro, Mestizo, coll. J. Peñín, R. Velasquez and C.A. Coba Andrade, Instituto Otavaleño de Antropología 5748–5750 (1990) [incl. notes by C.A. Coba Andrade]