(Gk.: eastern land).
An area roughly corresponding to the Asian part of Turkey. At the time of the Hittite empire (c14001200 bce), which included central and south-east Anatolia, Hittite rule extended into northern Syria. Archaeological research in Turkey since the middle of the 20th century has resulted in a substantial increase in the materials available for a reconstruction of the history of Anatolian music. Evaluation of these finds, which include instruments and depictions of musicians, together with information from Hittite cuneiform texts has led to a new understanding of the musical life of the area. Not only does Anatolia appear to have stood out from the rest of the prehistoric cultural environment of the Near East and Mediterranean, but the range of musical instruments produced and developed there is greater than was previously thought. The widespread belief that Anatolia was primarily a land of transition a bridge between the advanced cultures of Mesopotamia, the Levant, Transcaucasia and the Mediterranean civilizations and that the highland population mostly adopted foreign cultural traditions can no longer be sustained. Indeed, the evidence indicates the presence of many indigenous elements in Bronze Age Anatolian musical culture and a strong vein of creativity on the part of the Anatolian people.
This article covers a period of some eight millennia, from the earliest times to the Persian conquest of Anatolia in the 6th century bce.
1. Neolithic (80005500 bce) and Chalcolithic (55003000 bce) periods.
2. Early Bronze Age (30002000 bce).
3. Middle Bronze Age (20001600 bce).
4. Late Bronze Age: Hittite period (16001200 bce).
5. Early Iron Age (1200 up to the Persian conquest).
WERNER BACHMANN (14(i), 5), BELKIS DINÇOL (4(ii))
Iconographic evidence and the discovery of fragments of objects that could have been used for generating sound strongly indicate that the earliest manifestation of a musical culture in Anatolia dates from the neolithic period. Groups of nomadic hunter-gatherers, in order to be able to communicate with each other over large distances, would have required instruments capable of producing loud noises (whistles, drums, concussion sticks etc.). However, in the absence of complete specimens, the functional properties of these instruments cannot be determined. Interpretation based on ethnographic parallels indicates the possibility of multiple uses.
At Çatal Höyük, the largest neolithic settlement, in south-central Anatolia, the wall paintings of the east mound include a number of hunting scenes. For example, in room F V, 1 (early 6th millennium bce) the northern wall shows some kind of bull hunt or ceremony (Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations). The animal is depicted much larger than life in comparison with the many hunters surrounding it; two of the hunters, running behind the bull, hold up a disc that is probably a frame drum. In the same room other hunting scenes show men grasping horns or clubs in both hands, or swinging curved sticks which they possibly clashed to make a loud noise and drive the game into traps.
With the transition from hunting and gathering to a more sedentary existence based on agriculture and animal husbandry, a radical change occurred in the human way of life. In the pre-pottery neolithic period (9th7th millennia) complex settlements built of solid masonry were established at such places as Çayönü, Nevalı Çori, Göbekli Tepe, Cafer Höyük, Gritille and Asıklı Höyük, some of which already had precincts and temple buildings for ritual purposes. There is increasing evidence for cult ceremonies, dance music, funeral rites and ancestor worship. Group dancing (8th millennium onwards) is the most common artistic theme (Garfinkel, 1998, pp.20737); instruments (e.g. drums, rattles, clappers) appear only rarely. The dance scenes in the rock engravings of Tirisin, a mountainous region in the extreme south-east of Turkey, cannot be dated precisely, but the depiction of one group of 12 dancers is thought to be neolithic; a scene at Taht-i Melik, showing a drummer and a dancer, is probably of later date (see Uyanik, 1974, figs.117 and 86). The earliest representation of dancing from Anatolia (late 8th early 7th millennium) is on a relief on a stone bowl from Nevalı Çori (Hauptmann, 1993, p.67, fig.27). At Çatal Höyük the middle of the eastern wall of Room F V, 1 shows a group of men in leopard-skins dancing (see Mellaart, 1966, p.189, pl.lxia). Another scene, in Room A III, 1, depicts a hunting ritual involving dancers holding their weapons; one figure has a bow in each hand, two perform artistic leaps and another holds a horn-shaped stick and is striking a frame drum (fig.1; see also Stockmann, 1984, fig.2).
Among the excavated sound-generating instruments dating from the pre-pottery neolithic period onwards are scrapers made from the shoulder-blades of sheep, goats or cattle. Sound was produced by drawing a rigid or pliable object such as a wooden stick or a plectrum-like piece of bone along notches carved into the outer edges of the bones. Evidence of whirring implements like the Bullroarer or buzz and of rattles and rattling ornaments has been found in south-east Anatolian sites (Çayönü, Grikihaciyan, Hallan Çemi Tepesi, Sakça Gözü, Norsuntepe, Arslantepe), in places of worship and in graves, indicating that such objects were used in a religious context.
In general, however, evidence for prehistoric musical instruments is almost wholly lacking: the perishable materials from which they were made has ensured that nearly nothing has survived.
During the Early Bronze Age in Anatolia sound-generating instruments were increasingly made of arsenical copper, bronze or silver. About 100 metal idiophones of Anatolian origin survive from this period, almost all of them from the last third (see Bachmann, 1998): some 70 specimens of stemmed cymbals (characteristic of this era in Anatolia), several sistra, either complete or fragmentary, ritual standards with pendant clappers, metal discs for striking, clashing staves and other forms of clappers, and rattles. Most are from graves or hoards their ritual function is clear from the funerary context. Objects such as the display items from the princely graves of Alaca Höyük are highly sophisticated in design and craftsmanship (particularly bronze-casting). These Early Bronze Age idiophones were largely the product of indigenous Anatolian culture, traces of which are not found outside the area at this time, except possibly in individual exported items.
Stemmed cymbals (fig.2) have been discovered at the necropolises of Alaca Höyük and Horoztepe and among grave goods and in hoards at other central Anatolian sites. Interestingly, all the surviving examples date from a relatively short period, c24002000 bce (phase III of the Early Bronze Age). The diameter of the cymbals ranges between 4 and 12 cm (normally 68 cm); almost invariably the shallow discs have an indentation in the middle of the underside, and the stem, acting as a handle, usually ends in a slightly thickened section. In most cases this globular boss has a diagonal or, occasionally, a horizontal hole through which a string evidently passed, either to loop the instrument over the players wrist or to link a pair of cymbals together; sometimes the handle is hollow and conical. A number of the instruments are decorated the boss with an animal figure or a cluster of protuberances, the stem with artistic mouldings, and the upper side of the disc with hatching. Most of the stemmed cymbals found in graves were deliberately broken before being buried or were so severely distorted as to render them unplayable. The high regard in which these instruments were held is evident not least because they were made of silver as well as of copper alloys.
The elaborately shaped sistra of Anatolia are clearly to be distinguished from the shaken idiophones of other musical cultures and periods. They consist of a frame that is richly decorated with animal figures, pairs of horns and bud-shaped ornamentation, and of a handle; both are cast in one piece from an alloy of arsenic and copper. Within the frame are two or three parallel rods, with their ends bent over, onto which square or round pierced pieces of metal are threaded side by side. An exceptionally richly decorated example about 25·5 cm high (fig.3a: Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 18519) was discovered in 1954 in a grave in the cemetery at Horoztepe in the Tokat district (Özgüç and Akok, 1957, 201ff; 1958, p.7). Two more or less completely preserved sistra, 33 and 34·5 cm high respectively (figs.3bc: New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 55.137.12; see also Muscarella, 1988, pp.4001), may also have come from Horoztepe (Özgüç and Akok, 1958). Parts of further sistra were excavated at Alaca Höyük, including a circular pierced metal disc and a fragment of a slightly bent metal ring decorated with animal figures (see Kosay, 1951, pl.185; Tezcan, 1960, p.35). Also discovered were a number of decorative elements and concentric, pierced, circular discs of gold; these, too, were interpreted as parts of sistra (see Özgüç and Akok, 1958, p.49; Tezcan, 1960, p.35). The use of precious metals for cult instruments suggests that such objects, in addition to producing sound, were also priestly status symbols. As with the stemmed cymbals, this type of sistrum is evidently also an indigenous artefact of Anatolia.
Among the bronze cult objects from the princely graves of Alaca Höyük and Horoztepe are 17 shaken idiophones with ring-shaped, rhomboid or semicircular frames filled with elaborate lattice-work (fig.4). Sound was generated by disc-shaped pendants hanging from eyelets on the frame of the pierced bronze disc. Laden with symbolism and probably used in funerary rites, these richly ornamented objects are thought to represent solar discs or the cosmos, possibly used as cult standards. A base section with two pointed pins probably fixed the instrument to the pole or yoke of the vehicle that bore the bodies of high-ranking people to the grave; the instruments with the clapper pendants were then placed in the grave with other valuable goods, to accompany the dead persons passage to the next world (see Orthmann, 1967, pp.3454).
Pottery rattles have been found in considerable number at sites such as Troy, Karaoğlan, Tarsus, İkiztepe, Bademağaci, Karahöyük (Konya), Norsuntepe, Lidar Höyük, Ahlatlıbel, Acemhöyük, Polatlı and Demircihüyük. They were mostly interpreted as childrens toys, but they could also have been musical amulets whose original purpose was to avert evil. The form of these objects ranges from the usual globular or semi-globular shape to anthropomorphic, zoomorphic and vessel-shaped rattles, with or without handles or eyelets, and they include a number of unusual types found only in Anatolia (fig.5).
String instruments first appeared in Anatolia during phase III of the Early Bronze Age. An instrument resembling a harp is visible on a fragment of a ceramic vessel with figural reliefs (Malatya, Malatya Museum, M 3047) dating from the late 3rd millennium; it was found at Arslantepe, north-east of Malatya. The representation of the seated harpist is highly stylized, and the string instrument itself, which is only rudimentarily indicated, is difficult to reconcile with Mesopotamian or Egyptian models. The closest comparison appears to be with the triangular frame harps visible on Cycladic marble statuettes.
This period, which is distinguished by important changes in relation to the previous, prehistoric phase, also made its mark in the field of Anatolian musical culture. The Assyrians boosted foreign trade in the Near East and established a network of trading colonies in Anatolia, of which the most important was that at Kanesh (Kültepe). In the 18th century bce the Old Assyrian network collapsed as a result of the chaos caused by fighting between Anatolian rulers seeking supremacy. The Indo-European incursors (Hittites, Luvians, Palaians and Lycians) adopted the highly developed culture of the native population. Despite all the foreign influences, the indigenous element in Anatolia was so strong that it is possible, in the artistic domain, to speak of an Anatolian style. However, with regard to the musical instruments of the time, indigenous and imported ones cannot always be told apart.
The wide variety of Early Bronze Age musical instruments made of metal is not found in the Middle Bronze Age, which produced only one type of cymbals. Differing from the stemmed cymbals of the 3rd millennium, these convex, wide-rimmed instruments were held by means of loops of leather (or some other material) fixed through holes in the centre of the discs, rather than by metal handles. A pair of cymbals with diameters of 12·8 and 13 cm (Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 13125) was found in a house in the Assyrian trading colony of Kanesh on the outskirts of Kültepe (Level II, 19201840 bce). Another, smaller pair, 6 cm in diameter (Kayseri, Archaeological Museum, 73.631 and 73.632; see Özgüç, 1986, p.74, pl.128), was discovered in one of the graves of Kültepe (Level Ib, 18101740). Cymbal players are shown on Anatolian ceramic reliefs dating from about 1700 bce up to the development of centralized Hittite power, for instance, on the Bitik and the İnandık vases (see §4(i) below), and on potsherds from Alisar Hüyük, Kabaklı and Boğazköy-Hattua, the Hittite capital.
Evidence for the use of pottery drums is scarce. Slender ceramic tubes widening in diameter at both ends and some goblet-like forms corresponding to the darbukka type of drum played today in the Middle East and also found in iconographic records of the past may have been either drums or pot stands (see, for instance, the example in Antakya, Hatay Museum, T3729). However, in an archaeomusicological context any globular vessel is of interest if its opening is surrounded by small pierced lugs to which a membrane could be attached. Special attention has been paid to those pottery vessels, thought to be drums, whose striking shape clearly distinguishes them from the many other ceramic vessels dating from the first half of the 2nd millennium. The characteristic feature of this type of drum is its wide opening surrounded by a row of spikes and surmounting a tubular central section with a rounded, two-handled section at the bottom. Two almost complete specimens are presently known, one from Beycesultan (Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 19356; see Lloyd and Mellaart, 1965, figs. on pp.8 and 23) and the other from Bayraklı (Izmir, Archaeological Museum, 6710; see Akurgal, 1993, pls.2 and 28), as well as several fragments, all found on sites in the western half of Turkey.
Among the few pictorial sources that may be taken as evidence for the playing of wind instruments in Anatolia during the Middle Bronze Age is the fragment of an alabaster idol from Kültepe, with a relief showing three stylized figures who appear to be playing end-blown flutes (Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 141164; see Özgüç, 1957, fig.15). A pottery figure in the round applied to the wall of a vessel excavated in Korucutepe (Elaziğ, Museum, 73/Pt 105) is clearly a flute player. Dated to the first half of the 2nd millennium, it shows a long, edge-blown flute played with both hands and held under the musicians chin; the players pursed mouth is clearly visible as are two finger-holes on the front of the instrument. Several bone pipes dating from the pre-pottery neolithic period (from Cayönü) and more particularly from the 2nd millennium (Arslantepe, Acemhöyük, Alaca Höyük) have carefully bored holes or else a rectangular window; they are considered to be wind instruments, but their functional properties have not yet been ascertained.
Cylinder seals and seal impressions of the late 3rd and early 2nd millennia bce from central and south-east Anatolia provide evidence of cultural exchanges with Mesopotamia and Syria and also of the development of Anatolian types of instruments. Lyre players are most often depicted, sometimes with other figures holding a slightly curved stick in each hand probably to provide a rhythmic accompaniment. Among the earliest seals depicting lyres to be excavated in Asia Minor are those from a pithos grave in Oylum Höyük, near Gaziantep (Gaziantep Museum; see Özgen, 1993, p.470, fig.4). Five seals were found near the skeletons neck, together with beads and the remains of silver wire, indicating that they had been fixed to his necklace as decoration. Three depict banqueting scenes, in which a lyre player is shown seated at a table or sacrificial altar; a dancer with raised arms and a musician with a pair of crooked stick clappers are also present in two of these scenes. Each of the lyres is asymmetrical, with strikingly curved arms, one of which extends well above the yoke; the yoke itself has a bulge at one end. This type of lyre is also found on a cylinder seal from Carchemish (Istanbul, Museum of the Ancient Orient, 6934) dating from about 2000 bce.
Lyre players can be distinguished in a number of seal impressions on clay tablet envelopes written in cuneiform script excavated at the Assyrian trading settlement near Kültepe (Level II, 19201840 bce; see Teissier, 1994, p.231 no.480, and p.233, nos.5378). However, the players in these presentation scenes and scenes with gods are so small that it is impossible to identify precisely the types of instruments shown. In one such scene the player holds what looks like a type of Mesopotamian bull lyre (see T. and N. Özgüç, 1953, pl.lxii, no.702), but on closer examination it seems doubtful that what is thought to be the bulls head is in fact a part of the lyre. In a depiction of a seated lyre player preserved in mirror image on an incomplete stone mould unearthed at Acemhöyük (Levels III or IV, 19th or 18th century bce), the instrument being played, with five strings and irregularly curved arms, has also been regarded as a bull lyre (see Özgüç, 1976, pp.55960, pls.VIVII). The string holder on the rectangular resonator is visible, and the extended section the bulls head to one side of the resonator is relatively small. A seal impression dating from the 19th or 18th century bce from Acemhöyük (see Özgüç, 1979, p.290, pl.i, 2) shows a woman and a deity shaking hands; with their other hands they are holding a symmetrical five-string lyre with curved arms. Large lyres with doubly curved arms, designed to be played in horizontal position, are shown on seal designs of uncertain date from Tarsus and Mardin (see Norborg, 1995, figs.434).
An example of a long-necked lute, in this instance accompanied by concussion sticks, is found on a 17th-century Hittite stamp seal from Boğazköy (see Boehmer, 1988, pp.51ff, figs.12). In these early depictions the manner in which the lute is being held is similar to that shown in the oldest representations of the instrument on Akkadian cylinder seals. Dating from about the same time, a fragment of a painted vase found at Samsat, a large settlement in south-east Anatolia (Adıyaman, Adıyaman Museum, 3059; see Özgüç, 1992, pl.i, 1), shows a musician holding a very long, slender-necked lute with a small, almost circular body. Evidence for the use of the short-necked lute in Anatolia comes from a pottery vessel shaped like a lute player and obviously meant to be used as a rhyton (Adana, Archaeological Museum, 3790; see Duru, 1974). The mans mouth is wide open, forming the spout and giving the impression that he is singing, and the musical instrument, held almost horizontally in front of his chest, has a trapezoid or triangular resonator, and two strings plucked with a plectrum. A chance find, this vessel cannot be dated precisely.
The vertical angular harp first appears in Anatolia on seal designs of the 18th century bce. A Syrian cylinder seal found in the rulers palace in Karahöyük (Konya, Archaeological Museum, 1971.32.425) shows a female attendant playing a slender angular harp with the strings running vertically (see Alp, 1968, pp.117ff, pl.11, no.23).
The Hittites had been moving into Anatolia since the late 3rd millennium bce. With the establishment of the Old Kingdom (16001400 bce), they first appeared as a political power; a period of expansion and further deployment of power began around the middle of the 2nd millennium. The Hittite Empire (14301200 bce) extended to include not only a large part of central, southern and south-east Anatolia, but also northern Syria. For this period, written records, in the form of Hittite cuneiform texts, become available for the first time, and these together with iconographic sources (representations of musicians in the context of extensive festival ceremonies) assist in shaping our knowledge of Hittite musical culture. (For a map of the major Hittite sites see fig.6.)
The İnandık vase (Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 84165; see Özgüç, 1988, pp.83106), from the Hittite cultural centre of İnandık, dates from the 16th century bce. On this vase four friezes arranged one above the other illustrate the course of a festival (fig.7), beginning with a kitchen scene (the lowest frieze) in which food and drink for the cult banquet are being prepared, proceeding through depictions of symposia and the pouring of libations, animal sacrifices, processions and acrobatic performances, and ending with a ritual scene known as the Sacred Marriage. As well as gods, priests, bringers of gifts, and other cult personnel, a large number of dancers and musicians take part. As the İnandık vase makes clear, the lyre and lute players are dressed in short tunics and the cymbals players in long robes, suggesting that the chordophones were reserved for men and the idiophones for women. The lyre played a central part in Hittite ceremonies, and in this instance the instruments depicted six portable and one standing are of the asymmetrical type. Each lyre has strongly curved arms, a yoke that is also bent at both ends, and a resonator with a raised rectangular area that is probably a box-shaped bridge. These large, richly ornamented instruments are regarded as a specifically Anatolian Hittite development, whereas the lutes long-necked with an elliptical resonator and several holes on the soundboard and played with a plectrum held in the players right hand belong to the general class of ancient long-necked lutes. The many players of cymbals taking part in this festive ritual suggest that the volume of the music was loud. The same range and types of instruments as those represented on the İnandık vase may be seen on the fragments of vessels found near Çorum (see Sipahi and Yıldırım, 2000).
Two asymmetrical lyres and pairs of conspicuously large cymbals held together by a cord are shown in a ritual procession and libation scene depicted on the frieze around the rim of a Hittite fist-shaped silver vessel (a rhyton) dating from about the middle of the 2nd millennium bce (fig.8; Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, RL 144.1977). The eight- or nine-string lyres are notable for the shape of the resonator, on which a narrow bridge is visible (Güterbock and Kendall, 1995, pp.4560).
The orthostats of Alaca Höyük, which also date from the second half of the 2nd millennium (Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 11), depict an extended ritual scene in which a group of entertainers, including a lute player, amuse the weather god with music, dance and mime. As Hittite descriptions of festivities show, cult rituals included both solemn sacrificial ceremonies and performances to divert the gods. In this well-known representation, the lutenists instrument is a long-necked lute with a relatively large body and clearly waisted sides. The soundboard has ten holes, and frets are marked on the instruments slightly curved neck. The two strings were plucked with a plectrum fastened to the instrument with a cord (Eichmann, 1988, pp.598601, fig.8b; Baltacıoğlu, 1995).
A number of fragments found at Boğazköy, including an ornamental appliqué on a vessel and potsherds with reliefs, provide evidence for the harp at the time of the Hittite empire. However, in each case, only fragmentary representations of the harpists are preserved. One of the potsherds shows the players head and a part of the instrument (see Boehmer, 1983, pl.x, fig.23): the musician, represented with his mouth open, is probably singing to his own accompaniment; of the instruments vertical strings only seven survive and part of the slightly curved resonator that widens towards the top, belonging to a vertical angular harp. The head of a second, squatting harpist is missing; the instrument, held against the players chest, is also incomplete, making it impossible to ascertain exactly what type of harp it is. These finds have been dated to the 13th century bce (see Parzinger and Sanz, 1992, p.113, pl.70, no.94). Two further potsherds each show the upper part of a harp: one instrument is surmounted by an animal head, the other is bent back to form a ring-shaped structure.
Also from Boğazköy and dating from the same period are two bronze statuettes of wind players and one of a drummer (Paris, Musée du Louvre, MNB 338).
Cuneiform tablets from the royal archives of the Hittite capital Boğazköy-Hattua cover the period of the Hittite states existence, but because of their official nature they provide almost no details about the use of music in the everyday life of the people. The various editions, however, constitute a rich source of information about the official cult. Although the copious descriptions make little specific reference to music comment is confined to short, stereotyped expressions relating to instruments it is known that music, both instrumental and vocal (with and without accompaniment), was performed at several points during the festivals, especially when offerings were made, when the royal couple drank the gods, when the king moved from one place to another, and during processions with statues of deities. Dance, performed according to certain rules, was also included on occasion (for the special Hittite terminology relating to dance see de Martino, 1989). The notational system of the Hittites is still unknown, although scholars assume that it probably did not differ from that used in the rest of the ancient Near East.
Musical instrument names are written on the tablets either in Sumerograms (represented in the following discussion by capital letters) or in Hittite (given here in italic), but the absence of further technical description has made the process of identification very difficult (if not impossible). In some cases the presence of a determinative indicates the material of construction GI (wood) or URUDU (metal) but not the type of instrument (string, wind, percussion etc.), which, moreover, cannot necessarily be ascertained from the verbs associated with playing, because usage is inconsistent: parai-/pariparai-, to blow, is found solely with SIawatar, horn; walh-, to beat or to strike, generally occurs with percussion instruments but also on occasion in connection with string instruments; hazziya-, hazzik(k)-, hazzik-, to strike or to pluck, was originally applied to string instruments, but it later took on the more general meaning of to play (de Martino, 1988).
The instrument most frequently mentioned in the texts is the GI dINANNA (= instrument of the goddess Ishtar), which has been identified as lyre or kithara (de Martino, 1987). Its Hattic (i.e. pre-Hittite) equivalent is generally considered to be zinar (Laroche, 1955, pp.734), of which there were two sizes, large (GI dINANNA.GAL = hunzinar) and small/medium (GI dINANNA.TUR = ippizinar). GITIBULA (formerly read as GIÀ.A.TAR) is thought to denote a string instrument, probably a long-necked lute (see de Martino, 1997, p.485). (URUDU)galgalturi, an instrument sometimes found in pairs, most likely represents cymbals (see Gurney, 1977, p.35; Güterbock, 1995; Dinçol, 1998, p.2) or clappers (Polvani, Osservazioni, 1988, p.218), or maybe tambourine (Roszkowska, 1987, p.144; Puhvel, 198497, iv, 25). (GI)arkammi, which in most cases occurs together with galgalturi, is generally equated with drum (Polvani, Osservazioni, 1988; Roszkowska, 1987, p.24; Güterbock, 1995, p.59; Dinçol, 1998, p.4), its identification with harp (Puhvel, 198497, i, p.146) or lute (Klinger, 1996, pp.4945) not being supported by the textual evidence. A number of scholars believe (GI)arkammi to be identical with (GI)BALAG.DI (Otten and Souček, 1969, p.62; Klinger, 1996, p.746), although others, while admitting the similarity of these instruments, regard them as essentially different, interpreting (GI)BALAG.DI as tambourine (Polvani, Osservazioni, 1988, p.219). (GI)huhupal has also been interpreted in different ways, including cymbal (Polvani, 1988), drum with one membrane (Güterbock, 1995, p.71) and tambourine with one membrane (Dinçol, 1998); during the Lallupiya ritual this instrument was also used as a drinking vessel (Güterbock, 1995, pp.634). Wind instruments include the GI.GÍD (= long reed), a flute or (double) reed-pipe, and SIawatar/awitra-, a horn. (GI)mukar, used to summon the gods in the temples and to repel evil, probably denotes an idiophone, perhaps sistrum (Gurney, 1977, p.35; Güterbock and Hoffner, 1986, iii/3, pp.3234; de Martino, 1997, p.487); it is never found with a verb meaning to play.
Song (SÌR = ihamai-/ihamiya-: song, melody, to sing) played an important part in Hittite festivals (see Kümmel, 1973). Among professional musicians and singers the following three LÚNAR = kinirtalla-, LÚhalliyari-; and LÚGALA = LÚahtarili- seem to have occupied an important position. Some players were called after their instruments: for example, LÚ/MUNUSarkammiyala played the GIarkammi, although to do so appears not to have been this musicians unique privilege since others could also play it. Persons with other duties were also permitted to play instruments and sing during the festivals. The texts of the songs were in Hittite, or in languages such as Hattic, Luwian and Hurrian, and were performed by a soloist (or soloists) or chorus accompanied by instruments, generally the lyre. In festivals of Hattic origin and in some Luwian ones, the stanzas or refrains might be sung by the chorus and soloist(s) in alternation (see Klinger, 1996, pp.2778). The songs have titles such as Song of the Bulls, Song of the God, and some seem to have been specifically addressed to particular gods, for example, the Song of Hilai and the Song of the God of the Favourable Day in the Hiuwa festival, during which three drum players singing the Song of War (kuwayaralla zahhiya), accompanied by instruments, performed a war dance symbolizing a battle with the Storm god. References to music are also found in mythological texts. In the Hedammu myth there is a passage describing how the Great Sea is escorted from the house of Kumarbi to an accompaniment of drums and cymbals (see Siegelová, 1971, p.38). In the Song of Ullikummi the Goddess Ishtar sings and plays drums and cymbals in an attempt to lure the deaf and blind Ullikummi to the seashore (see Güterbock, 1952, p.14). In funerary rituals musicians sang to an accompaniment on the lyre (see Otten, 1958).
A number of references to songs occur in non-religious sources: for example, in an Old Hittite historical text there is a war song called Song of the God Zababa; and the full text of a song of two warriors is preserved in a palace chronicle.
After the fall of the Hittite Empire, several small states were established in Anatolia during the first half of the 1st millennium bce. The south-east was divided up into separate principalities in which Hittite traditions were deliberately perpetuated. In central Anatolia the state of Phrygia, with its capital Gordion, came into being. Urartu formed in the extreme east, and Lydia in the north-west. Greek immigrants founded cities on the west coast.
(i) South-east Anatolia: neo-Hittite kingdoms (1200700 bce).
(ii) Eastern Anatolia: Urartian period (c825600 bce).
(iii) Central Anatolia: Phrygian period (c800700 bce).
(iv) Western Anatolia: Lydian period (c678547/6 bce).
(v) Persian conquest: a turning-point.
Anatolia, §5: Early Iron Age (1200 up to the Persian conquest)
The foremost iconographic sources are the orthostat reliefs of the palaces and fortresses of late Hittite rulers, and some funerary stelae. The reliefs, which are notable for their faithful reproduction of individual iconographic details, come from Carchemish (Jerablus), Guzana (Tell Halaf), Samal (Zincirli), Gurgum (Maras) and Karatepe; with a few exceptions, they can be dated to the 9th and 8th centuries bce. The range of instruments shown is almost wholly confined to various types of lyre, lutes with long stick-like necks and very small pear-shaped or elliptical resonators, double auloi, usually played with a phorbeia (Gk.: mouthband), and drums of different sizes. There are occasional depictions of cymbals, concussion sticks, syrinxes and horns, but the harp no longer features. The reliefs portray both solo and ensemble music-making, usually in the context of court or religious festivities, and also instrumental performance combined with dance (see Orthmann, 1971, pp.3948).
A pair of early orthostats from Zincirli (Berlin, Vorderasiatisches Museum, 2652) depict a seated lute player facing a male dancer in a short tunic. The player is holding a long-necked lute in the normal way, and the strikingly long instrument has an extremely small resonator (the representation makes it possible to estimate the likely volume of sound); a loop hangs down from the top half of the stick-shaped neck. The dancer, wearing a short tunic, with his arms raised at an angle at shoulder-height, is making specific hand movements; a globular object, possibly a rattle, is fastened to his ankle.
Two orthostat reliefs depicting related musical themes flank a small entrance near the Kings Gate at Carchemish (Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 119 and 141). The first, a dance scene (fig.9), shows three musicians of different size wearing ankle-length robes, and a dancer in a short tunic; the first musician plays a lute similar to the instrument on the Zincirli relief, with strings plucked by a plectrum; the second has a double aulos, and the third is marking the dance rhythm with a pair of stick clappers. The second orthostat depicts a horn player and three men beating the side of a large shallow drum with the palms of their hands; the drum is fixed to carrying-straps over the shoulders of the two drummers on either side of it (this orthostat appears to be emphasizing the loudness of the sound and its signalling function).
A wild dance scene is represented on an orthostat still in its original position near the north gate at Karatepe (fig.10; Karatepe, Open-Air Museum). In the lower section two dancers of different size stand at the centre; they are flanked by a lyre player and a man, wearing a Phorbeia, playing a double aulos. The upper area shows a figure with a frame drum; the indented disc above this figures head is possibly a gong with a concave central area, or perhaps a wreath.
Two festival scenes with animals in anthropomorphized form standing upright to dance and play music were depicted on orthostats from Tell Halaf (formerly in Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, but destroyed in World War II). In each the lion, as the mightiest of beasts, plays the lyre. Other animals accompany the lyre with a frame drum, cymbals and concussion sticks. Similar scenes with animals playing music, probably deriving from orally transmitted animal fables, date from as early as the 3rd and 2nd millennia in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
A relief that is difficult to date or to classify stylistically, from Rumkale near Gaziantep, represents a barefoot man in a long robe, with a bag on his back and a water-bottle hanging from his belt, he may be a nomadic shepherd. With his right hand he holds a branch over his shoulder and in his left hand is a syrinx which is placed under his chin (Paris, Musée du Louvre, AO.1531).
One of the most unusual of the late Hittite reliefs, from the area of Karamanmaras (Antakya, Hatay Museum, 17915), is a funerary stela decorated on all four sides with closely related reliefs. A magnificently dressed woman, enthroned and attended by two serving women, is depicted on the front of this stela, and five more women, one behind the other, are shown on the other three sides. The first woman is beating a frame drum, the second is playing a pair of small cymbals, and the others follow, either clapping their hands or making a gesture of greeting (fig.11; see also Schachner, 1996, pp.203ff, figs.18).
The majority of late Hittite reliefs with scenes of music-making are concerned with the ritual cult feast. One such banqueting scene, on an orthostat at the Water Gate of Carchemish (Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 123), shows a male figure with a drinking goblet in his hand sitting at a table laden with food; a servant with a fan stands behind him, and a lute player and another servant holding a vessel are standing opposite. The musician has the same type of instrument as those shown in other late Hittite depictions of lutes, with a loop fastened to the top. This detail also appears on the fragment of a stela from Maras (New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 91.34.1), which shows parts of a banqueting scene and the end of a lute. In another stela from Maras (New York, MMA, 91.34.2), the female figure seated at the banqueting table holds a mirror in one hand and a rectangular box lyre in the other; the lyre is an attribute of the banqueting scene and the bird shown above the lyre suggests a musical reference. A similar relief, on a stela from the province of Maras (Karamanmaras, Archaeological Museum, 1040), depicts a lyre and a mirror again, attributes of the scene above the heads of the male and female figures seated opposite each other. The six-stringed symmetrical box lyre, with the arms running parallel and the strings fanned out clearly, shows the bridge and tailpiece as well as the bulges where the strings are fastened to the yoke.
A particularly lavish representation of a court festivity, in which seven servants and court officials and seven musicians are taking part as well as the enthroned ruler (probably Barrakib), can be reconstructed from the complete and fragmentary orthostats found at Zincirli (see Voos, 1985, pp.6586). The procession of musicians is led by a man with a double aulos (Berlin, Vorderasiatisches Museum, VA 2999 and VA 974), followed by two lyre players with instruments that clearly differ from each other, and two drummers (Istanbul, Museum of the Ancient Orient, 7723). Two more men with frame drums bring up the rear, one standing on the others shoulders (Berlin, VM, S 6584). The musicians clothes, with their tasselled belts, are different from from those of the other figures.
There is an interesting parallel to this festive scene from Zincirli in Prince Azitawaddas fortified summer residence at Karatepe. The reliefs of the first two orthostats behind the lion portal of the south gateway form a thematic unit in two registers, again representing a courtly scene of a cult banquet (Karatepe, Open-Air Museum). The central position in the scene is occupied by the ruler, who sits enthroned before a table covered with food and surrounded by a crowd of servants. In the lower register, the sacrificial bull is being led up, and the court musicians are shown standing behind each other on the left. As in the Zincirli banquet scene, the procession of musicians (fig.12) is led by a reed-instrument player, in this case blowing a double aulos; he is followed by two musicians with different types of lyre, while a drummer beating the frame drum usual at this period follows at the rear. Unlike the servants, who are shown in statuesque poses, all the musicians have their left feet slightly raised, suggesting that they are marching in time. Again, the musicians clothes, with double belts and with over-garments extending at the back below knee-length tunics, differ from those of the other figures. From these late Hittite reliefs it would appear, therefore, that an ensemble of court musicians with its own special uniform, set marching order and fixed group of instruments had already been established.
A considerable variety of lyres are represented in these reliefs, together with interesting details of construction and playing styles. Where two lyre players appear in the same ensemble, as in the Zincirli and Karatepe reliefs, two entirely different types of instrument are shown, one symmetrical and one asymmetrical. Generally, the symmetrical type has five or six strings, of about the same length and running approximately parallel, which are plucked with a plectrum held in the right hand; the left-hand fingers (visible behind the stringing) damp the strings that are not meant to sound when the plectrum strums all the strings simultaneously to mark the rhythm of the music. On the Zincirli relief, the portrayal of the symmetrical box lyre shows the strap slung around the front arm of the yoke and the musicians left wrist, enabling the instrument to be held close to the players chest as he marches along. Also visible are the semi-circular string holder and two circular ornaments or sound-holes on the box-shaped resonator. By contrast, the late Hittite asymmetrical lyre, with its eight to 12 strings, resembles the triangular frame harp more than the symmetrical lyre. The illustration of this type of instrument on the Zincirli reliefs shows that the arm of the lyre closest to the musician was seven times as long as the other and several times thicker. The longest of the 12 strings is approximately three times as long as the shortest, suggesting that the instrument had a wide range. The yoke forms an angle of about 45° to the long arm and is itself even longer; the fan-shaped arrangement of the strings made it easier for the fingers to pluck each string separately. The strings are fixed to a rectangular holder, a box bridge, open at the top and fitted sideways to the relatively large rectangular resonator close to the lower edge. Illustrations of this type of instrument, dating from about the early 7th century bce, are found in Nineveh (Mesopotamia) and in Syria (for instance, Antakya, Hatay Museum, T 3729).
Anatolia, §5: Early Iron Age (1200 up to the Persian conquest)
During the 9th century bce a mighty kingdom, called Urartu by the Assyrians, arose in the east, its core area lying between lakes Van (Turkey), Urmia (Iran) and Sevan (Armenia). At the height of its power in the 8th and 7th centuries bce, this empire (capital Tushpa, now Van) extended from the Euphrates to the Caspian Sea, and from the southern Caucasus and the eastern coastal region of the Black Sea to north-east Iraq. It was destroyed in about 600 bce by invading Medes and Scythians from the east and north.
Rich deposits of ore formed the basis for the highly developed metal-working skills of its people, especially in copper and bronze. Many bronze sound-generating objects of Urartian provenance have been discovered, including bells of various types, particularly horse bells (see Özgen 1984, pp.109111). Urartian and Assyrian reliefs of the late 8th century onwards frequently depict horses with bells hanging from their necks. The most characteristic type, made of cast bronze, is about 710 cm high, slightly conical in shape and with an octagonal, polygonal or approximately circular base. The body, divided up by two or three horizontal ridges (the lowest at the bottom), is perforated by rectangular or triangular openings or occasionally by openings in the form of an animal head. It is surmounted by a half dome or flattened dome, usually with rosette decoration, and a loop handle at the top. Two small holes opposite each other in the top of the dome would have held a metal pin from which to hang the clapper; as a result of corrosion, neither clappers nor pins, which were usually made of iron, have survived. Sometimes it is possible to date the bells from the names of the Urartian rulers inscribed on them; the earliest is from about 800 bce (see Muscarella, 1988, pp.4273; Calmeyer, 195771, iii, 42731). In another type of cast bronze bell, the body is entirely closed apart from a vertical slit a few millimetres wide running from its mouth to its shoulder.
Bronze crotals, whose antecedents can be traced back to the last third of the 2nd millennium and the time of the Hurrian Mitannian empire, occur as frequently as bells. Made by the lost-wax (cire perdue) method, they have hollow bodies spherical, spindle-shaped or zoomorphic with perforated walls; a small ball (or sometimes two or more balls) inside the instrument causes it to ring when shaken. Some of the crotals have eyelets from which they could be hung, or pins for fastening them to a stick or to the pole or yoke of a chariot. They have been found with the remains of chariots in grave chambers, for instance, in Nizhnih Adjyaman and Lchashen near Lake Sevan. Crotals shaped like birds, bulls, wild goats, ibexes and stags, from the Transcaucasus and north-east Anatolia, can be seen in museums in Armenia, Georgia and eastern Turkey (see Bossert, 1942, pl.65, no.317; Yaylalı, 1997, pp.1931).
Figural reliefs on such Urartian bronze objects as votive plaques, belts, clasps, helmets, quivers, shields and vessels have yet to be systematically studied for the presence of musical motifs. Two Urartian bronze belts from the late 8th century bce depict cult scenes with musicians, dancers and acrobats: the one shows female players of the aulos, the lyre and the frame drum, a male stiltwalker, and a woman in dance posture shaking an idiophonic cult standard (Istanbul, Sadberk Hanım Museum, ARK 60812181); the other shows musicians plucking a rectangular string instrument, dancers, and an acrobat doing a handstand or cartwheel (see Kellner, 1991, no.282).
Anatolia, §5: Early Iron Age (1200 up to the Persian conquest)
The Phrygians, who made their way east from south-east Europe in the 12th century bce and settled in central Anatolia, stepped into the power vacuum after the fall of the Hittite empire in about 1200 bce. The Phrygian kingdom was at its height in the 8th century bce. Written and pictorial sources as well as musical instrument finds suggest that the Phrygians religious music was orgiastic: their typical instruments the Phrygian aulos (see Bélis, 1986, pp.2140), cymbals and frame drums undoubtedly produced a very loud sound, and worship of the Phrygian goddess Cybele was clearly accompanied by ecstatic rituals and exciting, deafening noise. The many extant statuettes of Cybele and the votive plaques associated with her usually show the goddess with her attribute of a frame drum (see Naumann, 1983, p.136). During excavations in Boğazköy, a sculptural group was found among remains of buildings from the Phrygian period at the fortress gates of Büyükkale (fig.13; Ankara, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 138.3.64). Dated to the mid-6th century bce and presumably of cultic significance, it shows Cybele flanked by two male musicians less than half her height, one wearing a phorbeia and playing the double aulos (with equal length and parallel pipes), the other playing the seven-string lyre.
Discovered very close to the statue of Cybele and dated to about the same time is a fragmentary bronze cymbal; 8·7 cm in diameter, it has a convex central area, pierced in the middle, and a flat outer area curving slightly up at the rim. A pair of early Phrygian (mid-8thmid-7th century bce) bronze cymbals, excavated at the temple precincts of the lower city of Boğazköy (see Bittel, 1968, pp.7982; Boehmer, 1972, pp.1356) are about 10 cm in diameter and 2 mm thick. A circular, flat iron disc with a diameter of 33·5 cm and a suspension loop is slightly older and has been identified as a struck idiophone (a kind of gong). Two bronze tulip-shaped bells with an elliptical cross-section and wide loops were found in the later Phrygian level of Boğazköy (7th6th centuries bce). The rings to which the clappers were attached can still be seen, but the clappers themselves are missing (see Boehmer, 1972, p.70, pl.x; p.158, no.1658, pl.lvi).
Fragments of chordophones and aerophones have also been found in Gordion, the capital of the Phrygian kingdom. They all date to the late Phrygian period, extending from the invasion of the Cimmerians in 695 to the last quarter of the 4th century bce. The fragments of string instruments include a bridge and a string holder made of bone or ivory for a double-string instrument, probably a long-necked lute. Among the fragments of wind instruments are the upper section of an aulos, and two others (now in the Gordion museum), neither of which has been identified with any certainty, made from the wing bones of large birds, one with two finger-holes and the other with six. A lyre is depicted on shards of a painted pottery vessel from Tumulus J in Gordion, dating from the end of the 7th century. The instrument, a standing lyre with eight strings, is approximately circular and about the same size as its player, who is shown sitting on a stool flanked by two birds (see Kohler, 1995, pp.689, fig.27d).
A number of bronze figures of musicians standing or sitting to play reed instruments, trumpets or occasionally the syrinx are unprovenanced and, despite the Phrygian cap worn by the musicians, cannot be definitely identified as examples of Phrygian art. The figure of a trumpeter playing his instrument with the phorbeia probably comes from Mylasa.
Knowledge of Phrygian auloi as the characteristic instruments of Phrygian musical culture derives mainly from Greek and Roman written and pictorial sources. With the spread of the cult of Cybele to the west and the adoption of Phrygian auloi into the cult of Dionysus, this special form of the double aulos reached Greece and Rome, where it was used in theatres as well as for religious purposes, attracting much attention by its appearance and sound. These reed instruments, played in pairs, were of different lengths. The longer instrument had a funnel-shaped bell that curved upwards or backwards when the instrument was held in a more or less horizontal position during performance. Detailed depictions of Phrygian auloi occur relatively frequently in Roman reliefs of the imperial period; even the bombyx mechanism, the reeds and the separate sections of the cylindrical pipes are clearly visible in some of these representations (see Aulos, §I, 34 and fig.1). Greek and Latin written accounts indicate that Phrygian aulos players became famous far beyond the borders of their native land.
Anatolia, §5: Early Iron Age (1200 up to the Persian conquest)
Under the pressure of Doric migration, western Anatolia was more densely settled by Greek immigrants after the end of the 2nd millennium bce, particularly in the coastal regions. The Greek cities founded there united to form the Ionian League. The Lydian empire arose in the land behind the Ionian coastal cities, but its history cannot be traced back further than the 7th century bce. Archaeomusicological material found in the coastal regions of Anatolia and the offshore islands of the Aegean provides evidence of a variety of instrument types and of lively cultural exchanges with Greece. The depictions of lyres from Lydia, Caria, Lycia and Cilicia of the Geometric and Archaic periods (950600 and 600480 bce respectively) include unusual and short-lived special forms as well as some very elaborate and technically sophisticated types.
The representation of a seven-string lyre on late Geometric shards dating from the first half of the 7th century bce, excavated in Bayraklı, is very similar in its circular shape to the Phrygian lyre shown on shards in Tumulus J in Gordion (see §III, 3 above), but the former differs not only in its number of strings but also in the ends of the arms of the lyre, which extend far beyond the yoke itself, curving out and becoming increasingly broad (Akurgal, 1961, pp.1314, fig.3). Both depictions portray birds as the musical symbol of the lyre. In the lower part of the picture of the Bayraklı lyre, the line running parallel to the yoke, just where the strings end, should probably be regarded not as the upper edge of the resonator but as a string holder. The two crosses between the arms, most probably the resonators soundholes, suggest that the resonator itself was quite large. As in the case of the Gordion fragment, the stand fitted to one side indicates that the instrument was a standing lyre. A quite different type of lyre is shown on the fragment of a vessel from Pitane (Çandarlı), dated to around 600 bce. Two 6th-century relief friezes from Lycia with scenes of music-making and wrestling (Istanbul, Archaeological Museum, 5273 and 763) depict the round-based lyre. The seven-string lyre on a relief from Xanthos is very ornate. A marble sarcophagus found in 1994 in the province of Çanakkale, showing an aulos player, a kithara player, and a dancing girl with crotala performing at a funeral, can be dated to the late 6th century. The resonator of the lyre is made from a tortoise shell (Sevinç, 1996, pp.25164).
Several aulos fragments found during excavations of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the acropolis of Lindos date from the Archaic period (Istanbul, Archaeological Museum, 2796 and 3784; London, British Museum, GR 1907.121.423). The early 6th-century bone pipe from Ephesus is about 14 cm long, with five finger-holes at the front and one hole at the back.
Anatolia, §5: Early Iron Age (1200 up to the Persian conquest)
A clear break in the development of the musical cultures of Anatolia came with the conquest of the area by the Persians. Between 547 and 337 Anatolia was part of the Achaemenid empire (see Iran, §II, 4(iii)), and in 334 it was conquered by Alexander the Great. During the succeeding Hellenistic period (33427 bce), Greek civilization spread throughout the whole of Anatolia, not just to the west coast as in previous centuries, when the cultural exchange was stronger from east to west.
Greek written accounts from classical antiquity provide a graphic picture of the cultural influence of Anatolia on the Mediterranean area, more particularly the influence of the Phrygians and Lydians on Greek music (Thiemer, 1979). Several musical instruments common in ancient Greece were believed to have originated in Anatolia and to have been imported from there. The same was true of the origin of songs and modes in the teachings of Greek music theory on the harmoniai, as the terms Lydian, Mixolydian, Phrygian, Hypophrygian and Hypolydian clearly indicate.
Anatolia, §5: Early Iron Age (1200 up to the Persian conquest)
MGG1 (Hethitische Musik, M. Wegner); MGG2 (Leiern, B. Lawergren; Vorderasien, M. Schuol and S. Kammerer)
A. Ungnad: Tierkapellen, Aus fünf Jahrtausenden morgenländischer Kultur: Festschrift Max Freiherr von Oppenheim (Berlin, 1933), 1347
H.Z. Kosay: Türk tarih kurumu tarafından yapılan Alaca Höyük kazısı 19371939 daki çalısmalara ve kesiflere ait ilk rapor/Les fouilles dAlaca Höyük entreprises par la Société dhistorie turque: rapport préliminaire sur les travaux en 19371939 (Ankara, 1951)
N. Özgüç: Preliminary Report on the 1951 Excavations at Kültepe, Belleten, xvii/658 (1953), 298306
T. and N. Özgüç: Kültepe kazısı raporu 1949/Ausgrabungen in Kültepe, Bericht über die im Auftrage der Türkischen Historischen Gesellschaft 1949 durchgeführten Ausgrabungen (Ankara, 1953)
E. Porada: A Lyre Player from Tarsus and his Relations, The Aegean and the Near East: Studies Presented to Hetty Goldman, ed. S.S. Weinberg (Locust Valley, NY, 1956), 185211
N. Özgüç: Marble Idols and Statuettes from the Excavations at Kültepe, Belleten, xxi/814 (1957), 7180
T. Özgüç and M. Akok: Horoztepe Eserleri: Objects from Horoztepe, Belleten, xxi/82 (1957), 20119
P. Calmeyer: Glocken, Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie, iii, ed. E. Weidner and W. von Soden (Berlin and New York, 195771), 42731
K. Bittel and others: Vorläufiger Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Boğazkböy im Jahre 1957, Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin, xci (1958), 184
T. Özgüç and M. Akok: Horoztepe: eski tunç devri mezarliği ve iskân yeri/Horoztepe: an Early Bronze Age Settlement and Cemetery (Ankara, 1958)
B. Tezcan: New Finds from Horoztepe, Anatolia, v (1960), 1346
E. Akurgal: Die Kunst Anatoliens von Homer bis Alexander (Berlin, 1961)
B. Aign: Die Geschichte der Musikinstrumente des ägäischen Raumes bis um 700 vor Christus (Frankfurt, 1963)
S. Lloyd and J. Mellaart: Beycesultan, ii: Middle Bronze Age Architecture and Pottery (London, 1965)
J. Mellaart: Excavations at Çatal Hüyük, 1965: Fourth Preliminary Report, Anatolian Studies, xvi (1966), 16592
W. Orthmann: Zu den Standarten aus Alaca Hüyük, Istanbuler Mitteilungen, xvii (1967), 3454
S. Alp: Zylinder- und Stempelsiegel aus Karahöyük bei Konya (Ankara, 1968)
K. Bittel: Cymbeln für Kybele, Günther Wasmuth zum achtzigsten Geburtstag (Tübingen, 1968), 7982
W. Orthmann: Untersuchungen zur späthethitischen Kunst (Bonn, 1971)
R.M. Boehmer: Die Kleinfunde von Boğazköy: aus den Grabungskampagnen 19311939 und 19521969 (Berlin, 1972)
R. Duru: A Human-Shaped Rhyton from Kumrulu, Mansele armağan/Mélanges Mansel (Ankara, 1974), 67990
M. Uyanik: Petroglyphs of South-Eastern Anatolia (Graz, 1974)
K. Bittel: Die Hethiter: die Kunst Anatoliens vom Ende des 3. bis zum Anfang des 1. Jahrtausends vor Christus (Munich, 1976)
N. Özgüç: An Ivory Box and a Stone Mould from Acemhöyük, Belleten, xl/160 (1976), 54760
N. Özgüç: Some Contributions to Early Anatolian Art from Acemhöyük, Belleten, xliii/170 (1979), 28995
H. Thiemer: Der Einfluss der Phryger auf die altgriechische Musik (Bonn-Bad Godesberg, 1979)
R.M. Boehmer: Die Reliefkeramik von Boğazköy: Grabungskampagnen 19061912, 19311939, 19521978 (Berlin, 1983)
F. Naumann: Die Ikonographie der Kybele in der phrygischen und der griechischen Kunst (Tübingen, 1983)
E. Özgen: The Urartian Chariot Reconsidered, II: Archaeological Evidence, 9th7th Centuries B.C., Anatolica, xi (1984), 91154
D. Stockmann: On the Early History of Drums and Drumming in Europe and the Mediterranean, ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology [II]: Stockholm 1984, i, 1128
J. Voos: Zu einigen späthethitischen Reliefs aus den Beständen des Vorderasiatischen Museums Berlin, Altorientalische Forschungen, xii (1985), 6586
A. Bélis: Laulos phrygien, Revue archéologique, new ser., i (1986), 2140
T. Özgüç: Kültepe-Kanis II: eski yakındoğunun ticaret merkezinde yeni arastırmalar/New Researches at the Trading Center of the Ancient Near East (Ankara, 1986)
F. Prayon: Phrygische Plastik: die früheisenzeitliche Bildkunst Zentral-Anatoliens und ihre Beziehungen zu Griechenland und zum Alten Orient (Tübingen, 1987)
R.M. Boehmer: Früheste Abbildungen von Lautenspielern in der althethitischen Glyptik, Documentum Asiae Minoris Antiquae: Festschrift für Heinrich Otten zum 75. Geburtstag, ed. E. Neu and C. Rüster (Wiesbaden, 1988), 518
R. Eichmann: Zur Konstruktion und Spielhaltung der altorientalischen Spiesslauten: von den Anfängen bis in die seleukidisch-parthische Zeit, Baghdader Mitteilungen, xix (1988), 583625
O.W. Muscarella: Bronze and Iron: Ancient Near Eastern Artefacts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, 1988)
T. Özgüç: İnandıktepe: eski hitit çağında önemli bir kült merkezi/An Important Cult Center in the Old Hittite Period (Ankara, 1988)
H.-J. Keller: Gürselbleche aus Urartu (Stuttgart, 1991)
N. Özgüç: A Lute Player from Samsat, Hittite and Other Anatolian and Near Eastern Studies in Honour of Sedat Alp: Sedat Alpa armağan/Festschrift für Sedat Alp, ed. H. Otten and others (Ankara, 1992), 41923
H. Parzinger and R. Sanz: Die Oberstadt von Hattua: hethitische Keramik aus dem zentralen Tempelviertel: Funde aus den Grabungen 19801987 (Berlin, 1992)
E. Akurgal: Eski çagda Ege ve Izmir (Izmir, 1993)
M. Byrne: The Dardanos Fragments and the 40° Angular Lyre, GSJ, xlvi (1993), 325
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E. Özgen: An Early Bronze Age Burial at Oylum Höyük near Kilis, Aspects of Art and Iconography: Anatolia and its Neighbors: Studies in Honour of Nimet Özgüç/Nimet Özgüçe armağan, ed. M. Mellink, E. Porada and T. Özgüç (Ankara, 1993), 46772
T. Özgüç: Studies on Hittite Relief Vases, Seals, Figurines and Rock-Carvings, ibid., 47399
B. Teissier: Sealing and Seals on Texts from Kültepe Kārum Level 2 (Istanbul, 1994)
H. Baltacıoğlu: Alaca Höyük sfenksli kaptya ait müzisyen ve bir görevli kabartmasına iliskin gözlemler [Observations on the musician relief at the Sphinx-Gate of Alaca Höyük] (Ankara, 1995)
H.G. Güterbock and T. Kendall: A Hittite Silver Vessel in the Form of a Fist, The Ages of Homer: a Tribute to Emily Townsend Vermeule, ed. J.B. Carter and S.P. Morris (Austin, TX, 1995), 4560
E.L. Kohler: The Lesser Phrygian Tumuli, pt i: The Inhumations, in The Gordion Excavations (19501973): Final Reports, ii, ed. G.K. Sams (Philadelphia, 1995)
Ċ. Norborg: Ancient Middle Eastern Lyres (Stockholm, 1995)
S. and A. Schachner: Eine späthethitische Grabstele aus Maras im Museum von Antakya, Anatolica, xxii (1996), 20320
N. Sevinç: A New Sarcophagus of Polyxena from the Salvage Excavations at Gümüsçay, Studia troica, vi (1996), 25164
S. Yaylalı: Erzurum müzesindeki bronz keçi figürleri üzerine bazı gözlemler, Arkeoloji dergisi, v (1997), 1931, pls.IVVI
Y. Garfinkel: Dancing and the Beginning of Art Scenes in the Early Village Communities of the Near East and Southeast Europe, Cambridge Archaeological Journal, viii (1998), 20737
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