Capital city of the Netherlands. Its musical history reflects the city’s rapid growth from a small settlement in the 13th century to a centre of world trade as a result of 17th-century Dutch colonial expansion. During this period the city government, merchants and patricians promoted music not only as a leisure activity, but also to add to their status. Civic encouragement of music has continued since then, notably in support of the Concertgebouw Orchestra (founded 1888), which has received international acclaim over many years.
5. Music printing and publishing.
JAN VAN DER VEEN/JOHAN GISKES (1, 3, 4), MICHAEL DAVIDSON, JOHAN GISKES (2), JOHAN GISKES (5, 6)
Amsterdam's musically important churches in the late Middle Ages were the Nicolaaskerk or Oude Kerk (c1300), the Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk or Nieuwe Kerk (c1410), the Heilige Stede or Nieuwezijdskapel (1347) and the St Olofskapel or Oudezijdskapel (c1450): all had organs. From 1537 the Heilige Stede used the Occo Codex, from the workshop of Pierre Alamire, with polyphonic music by Josquin, Mouton, Isaac and others. In the 16th century laymen were admitted to the choirs, and in 1561 the parish schools acquired a songbook, printed in Leuven by Pierre Phalèse (i). Protestants took over the Catholic churches after 1578, and organ playing was forbidden during services until 1680; organs were used primarily as solo instruments. The government organized ‘promenade organ concerts’, open to the public. Peter Swybbertszoon was an organist of the Oude Kerk (c1564–73), as were his son Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (c1580–1621) and grandson Dirck (1621–52). After 1578 Catholics were initially forced to hold services in private homes, but these still included music. From 1691 to 1867 the Mozes- en Aäronkerk had a choir and an orchestra, Zelus Pro Domo Dei; among the conductors were Johannes Bernardus van Bree and his son Hermanus Johannes Jacobus van Bree.
The Schouwburg on the Keizersgracht (see fig.1), inaugurated in 1638, soon became the cultural centre of Amsterdam, giving ballets, plays with music and French opera. The whole audience paid for their seats; enormous surplus profits were given to charities. In 1680 an opera house was opened on the Leidsegracht: it had an initial success, but failed financially and closed in 1682. In the 18th century the popularity of opera grew rapidly and some theatres thrived outside the city boundaries. Dutch, Italian and German operas predominated. The Flemish troupe of Jacques Toussaint Neyts performed French and other operas in Dutch. In 1772 the Schouwburg burnt down; the company moved first to nearby Haarlem, then to the Overtoomseweg just outside Amsterdam, and finally to the new Schouwburg (later the Stadsschouwburg on the Leidseplein, which opened in 1774); its principal conductor was Bartholomeus Ruloffs.
After 1770, various societies were founded to break the monopoly of the Schouwburg. The Collège Dramatique et Lyrique (founded 1781/2) built the Théâtre Français (1788–1853; rebuilt in 1948 as the Kleine Komedie) on the Amstel river; at first it was open only to members, but the invasion by the French (1795) forced its opening to the general public, with performances of French and Italian opera. The Hoogduitsche Schouwburg on the Amstelstraat (from 1852 to 1940 the Grand Théâtre) opened in 1791 and regularly staged German and Italian operas until 1853. Local Italian companies flourished only under Louis Bonaparte (1806–10), but foreign troupes often presented Italian opera, both in the Schouwburg on the Leidseplein and in the Hoogduitsche Schouwburg.
The demand for German opera, superseding French, increased throughout the 19th century. From 1846 to 1859 J.E. de Vries's Hoogduitsche Opera presented German repertory in the Stadsschouwburg and the Hoogduitsche Schouwburg was forced to close. 1858 saw the Dutch première of Tannhäuser before it reached London or Paris. After De Vries left in 1859, the Stadsschouwburg was used by visiting companies, principally those of the Koninklijke Franse Schouwburg of The Hague and the Hoogduitsche Opera of Rotterdam. The Wagnervereeniging was founded in 1883 by Henri Viotta, its regular conductor until 1919. In 1893 the society staged Siegfried in the Paleis voor Volksvlijt (Industrial Palace). Viotta conducted Parsifalin 1905, although Cosima Wagner wanted the work staged only in Bayreuth. He also introduced works by Richard Strauss, Humperdinck and other contemporary composers; Strauss conducted his Ariadne auf Naxos in 1924 and Arabellain 1934. The performances were generally given with the Concertgebouw Orchestra. The society gave its last performance in 1959. The Opera Italiana, formed in 1897 by Michel de Hondt, performed in the Theater Carré (opened 1887; still extant as the Koninklijk Theater Carré) on the Amstel river. In 1907 it staged Salome in the Paleis voor Volksvlijt, with Strauss conducting. The Hollandsche Opera (later Nederlandse Opera), founded in 1886 and based in the former Parkschouwburg (opened 1883), was the first of various short-lived Dutch opera companies around 1900.
The present Stadsschouwburg on the Leidseplein opened in 1894 (its predecessor had burnt down in 1890). The German occupation (1940–45) brought an increase of operatic activity there, necessitating an expansion of backstage facilities. In 1946 the Stichting de Nederlandse Opera was formed, the first state-subsidised opera company. From 1965 a new foundation, the Nederlandse Operastichting, gave numerous premières in Amsterdam, including works by Ton de Leeuw, Guillaume Landré, Peter Schat, Ton de Kruyf and Theo Loevendie. Productions of Baroque and early Classical operas attracted international attention. In 1966 the Opera Studio for training young singers was opened. The Muziektheater on the Waterlooplein opened in 1986.
Whereas elsewhere in Europe cultural life was financially supported by courts, in Amsterdam burghers took this responsibility in the 17th century. Public concerts were given for a paying audience in the Schouwburg in 1643, the earliest known instance of this practice in Western music. Collegia musica were formed; Sweelinck led such performances and dedicated works to his benefactors, and a group of leading poets, scientists and connoisseurs associated with Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft made music at the castle in Muiden. The city employed such musicians as Joseph Butler, Jacobus Haffner, the Sweelincks and the van Noordts. Local composers of the period included Carolus Hacquart, Hendrik Anders, Johannes Schenck and David Petersen.
Leading figures in the 18th century were Elias Bronnemüller, Pieter Hellendaal, Willem de Fesch and P.A. Locatelli (active in Amsterdam c1729–64). In 1777 the Maatschappij Felix Meritis (Felix Meritis Society) was founded by Willem Writs, with departments devoted to commerce, science and the arts. It opened a concert hall on the Keizersgracht in 1788, employing an orchestra until 1884–5 and giving regular concerts; performers included Robert and Clara Schumann and Brahms. From 1796 onwards concerts were also given on Sundays by Eruditio Musica in the Hoogduitsche Schouwburg with an orchestra of 75 players; this practice was discontinued in 1824. Both societies contributed much to the popularity of Mozart in the Netherlands. The Felix Meritis Society's concert activities ceased with the opening of the Concertgebouw in 1888.
In the 19th century a lively concert life – some 500 concerts and opera performances were given in 1840–41 – was dominated successively by J.B. van Bree and Johannes Verhulst. The latter was conductor of both the choir of the Afdeeling Amsterdam of the Maastchappij tot bevordering der toonkunst (founded 1829), and the Maatschappij Caecilia orchestra (founded 1841) from 1864 and the Felix Meritis orchestra from 1865. Although a fine conductor, he was conservative: he never performed works by Wagner, Berlioz or Liszt or the contemporary French school. In 1886 he resigned his positions. The Parkorkest (founded 1849), one of the first professional orchestras in the Netherlands, was the house orchestra of the Parkzaal, which was the centre of Amsterdam concert life from when it was built in 1851 until its demolition in 1881. The Paleis voor Volksvlijt had a symphony orchestra from 1865 to 1895. The Odeon on the Singel was known for its excellent small concert hall. Daniël de Lange's Amsterdamsch A Cappellakoor and the Klein Koor A Cappella under Anton Averkamp were well known around 1900.
By the end of the 19th century the city's musical culture was profiting from renewed economic growth. The Concertgebouw Ltd was established in 1882 to construct a new concert hall to replace the Parkzaal, which had been demolished in 1881. The Concertgebouw, with the superb acoustics of its Grote Zaal (fig.2) and Kleine Zaal, was built in the Van Baerlestraat and inaugurated in 1888. Later that year the Concertgebouw Orchestra was formed. Its principal conductors have been Willem Kes (1888–95), Willem Mengelberg (1895–1945), Eduard van Beinum (1938–59), Eugen Jochum (1961–4), Bernard Haitink (1961–88) and Riccardo Chailly (from 1988). Kes created a skilled ensemble with a varied repertory, including contemporary works. Under Mengelberg the orchestra achieved international fame and he too included works by important contemporaries. He conducted Dutch music festivals in 1902, 1912 and 1935, as well as a Mahler festival in 1920 and a French festival in 1922. Many concerts were performed with the Amsterdam Toonkunst Choir (founded in 1829 and still extant), which was directed in turn by Verhulst, Julius Röntgen and from 1898 Mengelberg, who gave annual performances of Bach's St Matthew Passion from 1899 to 1944. Guest conductors of the Concertgebouw included Arthur Nikisch, Richard Strauss, Hans Richter, Felix Mottl, Felix Weingartner, Gustav Mahler, Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, Adrian Boult, Fritz Busch and Igor Markevich, some presenting their own compositions.
During the German occupation, from 1940, new regulations came into force. At first no music by Jewish and ‘entartete’ composers was to be played in public; then in 1941 the ‘aryanization’ of Dutch orchestras began, which meant that all Jews were dismissed. With the consent of the German authorities new Jewish orchestras and ensembles were formed. The Joodsch Symphonie-Orkest, conducted by Albert van Raalte, gave 25 performances from 16 November 1941 to 9 July 1942, with works by Jewish composers, and with Jewish soloists, for an exclusively Jewish audience, in the Joodsche (formerly Hollandsche) Schouwburg on the Plantage Middenlaan. Shortly after the last performance the theatre became the gathering point for concentration camps. In 1947 the theatre was assigned to the municipality; in 1967 it was made a monument to the Jews who were transported from there.
Willem Mengelberg did not oppose the Nazi regime; after the liberation he was banned from Dutch musical life. His successor, Eduard van Beinum, is remembered for his performances of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Bruckner, late 19th-century and 20th-century French music and new compositions including Dutch music. Bernard Haitink continued the impressive Bruckner and Mahler tradition and also became known for his interpretations of works by Richard Strauss and Shostakovich. Riccardo Chailly, a warm advocate of contemporary music, continued the symphonic tradition and also conducted opera. In 1952 the Concertgebouw Orchestra became independent of the organization and the building for which it was named; in 1988 it received the epithet ‘Royal’. The second Mahler Festival in 1995 was held in cooperation with the Berlin PO and Vienna PO. The first of many recordings of the Concertgebouw Orchestra was made in 1926.
The Amsterdams Philharmonisch Orkest (Amsterdam PO), formerly Kunstmaandorkest, was founded in 1953 and the Nederlands Kamerorkest (NKO) in 1955, led for 22 years by the violinist Szymon Goldberg. In 1985 the Nederlands Philharmonisch Orkest (NedPhO) was formed from a merger with the Amsterdam PO, the Utrecht SO and the NKO. The Stichting Nederlands Philharmonisch Orkest has managed it and the NKO, both under the chief conductor Hartmut Haenchen since 1986. Vassili Sinaiski has been permanent conductor of the NedPhO since 1992–3, and Philippe Entremont of the NKO since 1993. From 1988 both orchestras were based in the Beurs van Berlage on the Damrak, the former Bourse (1898–1903), designed by H.P. Berlage. The Nederlands Balletorkest, founded in 1965, performs with the Nationale Ballet and the Nederlands Danstheater. The Nationaal Jeugd Orkest was formed in 1957, the Nederlands Blazersensemble gave their first public concert in 1960 and the Nieuw Sinfonietta Amsterdam was founded in 1988, under Lev Markiz. The Nederlands Kamerkoor, formed in 1937 by Felix de Nobel, from 1988 under Uwe Gronostay and from 1998/9 under Tõnu Kaljuste, specializes in a cappella repertory; Poulenc, Frank Martin, Hendrik Andriessen, Henk Badings and Rudolf Escher have all composed for it.
Touring jazz musicians and light music performers played in the Concertgebouw from the 1950s. The dance hall Sheherazade, in Wagenstraat, was for a short time the centre of Dutch jazz through performances by the percussionist Wessel Ilcken and the singer Rita Reys, as well as jazz musicians from abroad. In 1960 Boy's Big Band with Boy Edgar was founded. The jazz concerts in Paradiso on the Weteringschans, started by the saxophonist Hans Dulfer in 1968, achieved international renown. The Concertgebouw also staged rock concerts. Initiatives by the periodical Hitweek led to the founding of the multimedia halls Fantasio and Paradiso (both opened 1968), and later, in 1995, the Melkweg. In 1969 a group of musicians, Notenkraker (active until 1970), protested against established musical practices, and alternative ensembles were formed. From 1974 the BIM-Huis on the Oude Schans specialized in jazz and improvised music; notable in the field were Theo Loevendie, the Willem Breuker Kollektief and the Maarten Altena Ensemble (founded 1980). The De Volharding orchestra was formed in 1972 by the composer Louis Andriessen with classical and jazz musicians, including Breuker, performing improvised and socially engaging music. Contemporary music and young composers are supported by the Gaudeamus Foundation, founded in 1945. Since 1981 De Ijsbreker on the Weesperzijde, which has a small concert hall, has been a centre for contemporary music. The summer Holland Festival, held annually since 1948, is based in Amsterdam.
Since World War II Amsterdam has become important in the revival of early music, starting with the organist and harpsichordist Gustav Leonhardt. Ton Koopman founded the Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra in 1979 and, together with Simon Schouten, the Amsterdam Baroque Choir in 1992. In 1981 the Orkest van de Achttiende Eeuw (Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century) was founded by Frans Brüggen.
Among Sweelinck's pupils were founders of the so-called North German organ school, as well as dilettantes from well-to-do families. During the 17th and 18th centuries instrument makers also gave music lessons to their customers and apprentices. Music, mainly singing, was taught in elementary schools in the 18th century. Didactic books were published and such societies as the Maatschappij tot Nut van 't Algemeen (1784) were founded with the improvement of music education among their aims.
In 1827 the Koninklijke Muziekschool opened (later called the Stedelijke Muziekschool, 1844–52). The Maatschappij tot Bevordering der Toonkunst started a new music school in 1853, with J.B. van Bree as its director; it closed in 1857. In 1862 Toonkunst opened a ‘Zangschool’ for dilettantes. The Amsterdam Conservatory was founded in 1884 with Frans Coenen as director, followed by Daniël de Lange and Julius Röntgen. Bernard Zweers, Willem Pijper and Ton de Leeuw taught composition there. The Orkestschool, an initiative of Willem Kes, was opened in the Concertgebouw in 1890. When Kes left Amsterdam in 1895, it was taken over by the Concertgebouw; it merged with the Amsterdam Conservatory in 1915. A group of teachers, dissatisfied with the conservatory, founded the Muzieklyceum in 1921. In 1976 the two institutions merged as the Sweelinck Conservatorium Amsterdam. Since 1994 the Sweelinck Conservatorium has been part of the Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor de Kunsten with the Hilversum Conservatory. Following a merger of the two in 1998, it was renamed the Conservatorium van Amsterdam.
The Koninklijke Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis, the oldest surviving musicological society in the world, was created in 1868 by the Maatschappij tot Bevordering der Toonkunst (it received the ‘Royal’ in 1993). At the University of Amsterdam music history was first taught by K.P. Bernet Kempers in 1929. Ethnomusicology was introduced in 1936 at the Koloniaal Instituut (now the Instituut voor de Tropen) by Jaap Kunst, and is now taught at the University of Amsterdam.
In the 17th century the increased demand for printed music led Amsterdam to become a leading printing centre. The first important Amsterdam music seller was the book publisher and wholesale dealer Cornelis Claeszoon (c1550–1609). Paulus Matthysz was the first in the republic to specialize as a music printer. The important music publishing firm of Estienne Roger (fl c1696–1716) was continued by Michel-Charles Le Cène after 1723; it was superseded in the second half of the 18th century by the Hummel firm. In 1898 G. Alsbach & Co. moved from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Active until 1961, they published the majority of Dutch composers in the first half of the 20th century. The Stichting Donemus (Documentatie in Nederland voo Muziek; Donemus Foundation), founded in 1947 to promote Dutch musical life, went on to become the most important publisher of contemporary Dutch music.
Jan van Covelens (d 1532), who was based in Amsterdam, built, enlarged and repaired organs, creating a new organ type that served as the model for the Northern Netherlands throughout the 16th century and exercised influence in the Southern Netherlands and France. Van Covelens taught Hendrik Niehoff from Brabant, and probably also Claes Willemszoon and the Utrecht organ maker Cornelis Gerritszoon. Niehoff and his assistants built two organs in the Oude Kerk in 1539–45; the larger, later used by Sweelinck, was very modern in its day.
In the 17th and 18th centuries expensive organs were made in a number of churches by first-class builders: Jacobus Galtuszoon van Hagerbeer, Roelof Barentszoon, Johannes Duy(t)schot, Cornelis van Hoornbeeck, Christian Müller and Johannes Stephanus Strumphler. Amsterdam was also an important centre of house organs in the 18th century. In the 17th century, carillons were made by the brothers François and Pieter Hemony. The making of woodwind instruments flourished from about 1670 to 1810, with 1685–1735 as the peak, notable for recorders, flutes, oboes and bassoons. New inventions were applied and new instruments developed such as the ‘akkoordfluit’ (double recorder). The firm of Meincke and Pieter Meyer (established 1779) was the first of several in Amsterdam to specialize in the manufacture of fortepianos, continuing to 1840 and following instruments from centres such as London, Augsburg, Vienna and Paris. Violin-making has thrived in Amsterdam for centuries, notable periods being 1650–1728, 1760–1820 and since about 1900.
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J.H. Giskes: ‘Tussen klankbodem en schilderslinnen: muziekinstrumentmakers en schilders in Rembrandts tijd’, Amstelodamum [monthly], no.81 (1994), 65–76
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J.H. Giskes: ‘De overdracht van vakmanschap bij Amsterdamse bouwers van dubbelrietinstrumenten in de zeventiende en achttiende eeuw’, Scrapes, ii/4 (1995), 28–34
H. Kurzbauer: ‘Lutherie in the Lowlands’, The Strad, cvi (1995), 810–14
F. Lindeman: ‘Dutch Violin Making down the Centuries’, ibid., 782–91